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Running head: CANCER

Cancer

Institute of affiliation

Name

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Cancer

Abstract

Cancer is an abnormal condition characterized by uncontrolled proliferation and spread of

cells, such as in the colon, rectum, lung, breast and prostate. Cancer is caused by both external

risk factors (physical inactivity, obesity, and radiation and chemicals exposure) and internal

factors (innate mutations, and immune and hormonal aberrations). Cancer can remain dormant

for ten years following contagion for it to manifest itself. Cancer is managed through surgery,

radiotherapy and chemotherapy-where various drugs are used. Cancer death rate shows a

disparity since higher deaths are reported in populations of low socioeconomic status than the

well-off populace. Cancer infections also show disparity in gender with breast cancer infecting

women more than men. This paper intends to show how risk factors induce different types of

cancer, treatment and disparity of cancer in a population.(American Cancer Society, 2011)

What Shift In Health Behaviors Has Changed Incidence And Mortality Of Cancer?

The consumption of saturated fat and calorie-dense food and physical inactivity leads to

obesity which makes an individual susceptible to cancer. Cigarette contains thousands of

chemicals many of which are carcinogenic, thus causing lung cancer. Failure to create and

maintain a regular cancer screening culture among the populace has resulted to late detection and

diagnosis of cancer. These factors have increased the incidence and mortality of cancer (National

Cancer Institute, 2012).

Which Cancers Have Been Most Affected By Behavior Shifts?

Increasing age, physical inactivity, and taking one or more alcoholic beverages on a daily

basis are some of the factors that highly induce breast cancer. Occupational exposure to

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trichloroethylene, an industrial agent used as a metal degreaser induces kidney cancer. Exposure

to radioactive material augments the risk of leukemia (American Cancer Society, 2011).

Definitions

Cancer survival rate illustrates the fraction of people who survive a type of cancer for a

particular period of time, usually five years(National Cancer Institute, 2012).

Cancer staging is a procedure of finding out the level to which cancer has metastasized in

the body. Current practice is to consign numerical values (I-IV) for cancers, with (I) being a

benign tumor and (IV) being cancer which has metastasized to the extent of what the assessment

evaluates (National Cancer Institute, 2012).

Tumor grade is a means of categorizing tumors in relation to certain traits of their cells.. If

the cancer cells look like normal cells and they occur in few numbers then the tumor grade will

automatically be low(National Cancer Institute, 2012).

Tumor markers are molecules, typically proteins, which are synthesized by the body in retort

to cancer development or by the cancer cells. They may be detected in urine, blood, or tissue

samples. Some markers are highly specific to one cancer while others are detected in various

types of cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2012).

Prognostic and Predictive Factors, Incidence & Mortality, Risk Factors, Screening, Prevention

and Clinical Features of Colon & Rectal, Breast, Lung and Prostate Cancers

Lung Cancer

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The incidence rate has reduced considerably in men, from 102.1 cases per 100,000 in

1984 to 71.8 cases in 2007. In women, the rate has started to dwindle after a long time of

increase (Cyllene, 2010).

Lung cancer kills more people than the rest of cancers combined. Symptoms may

comprise sputum streaked with blood, persistent cough, chest pain, recurrent pneumonia or

bronchitis and voice change. Cigarette smoking is the key risk factor for lung cancer. Low-dose

spiral computed tomography (CT) scans and molecular markers in sputum are used to detect lung

cancer in early stages for effective treatment. Treatment is by surgery, radiation therapy or

chemotherapy. Avoiding smoking tobacco can prevent one from acquiring lung cancer (Kevin,

2006).

Colon and Rectum Cancer

Colorectal cancer incidence and Mortality rates have been declining over the past two

decades. At first colorectal cancer does not portray any symptoms hence screening is usually

essential to detect colorectal cancer in its early phase. As this cancer advances, it may result to

rectal bleeding, an alteration in bowel routines and blood in the stool, and contracting pain in the

lower abdomen (American Cancer Society, 2011).

Obesity, physical inactivity, and a diet high in red meat increase risk of acquiring colorectal

cancer. Colorectal cancer risk is also increased by certain. Screening results in the recognition

and exclusion of colorectal polyps before they turn out to be cancerous, as well as the discovery

of cancer that is at an early phase. Surgery is the most considered treatment for colorectal cancer.

Chemotherapy alone, or in an amalgamation with radiation, is administered prior to or after

surgery to most patients whose malignancy has infiltrated the bowel wall severely or extended to

lymph nodes (American Cancer Society, 2011).

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Breast Cancer

The incidence rate for feminine breast cancer started to drop in 2000, and this has been

credited to diminution in the exploitation of menopausal hormone therapy (MHT). The first sign

of breast cancer is often an aberration identified on a mammogram before it can be detected by

the patient or a physician. Rare symptoms comprise persistent changes to the breast, such as

thickening, distortion, swelling, tenderness, redness, skin irritation and nipple abnormalities,

such as retraction, ulceration, or spontaneous discharge. In general, breast pain yields from

benign tumors and is not an early sign of breast cancer. Physical inactivity, increasing age, and

taking of one or more alcoholic beverages on a daily basis are some of the factors that highly

induce breast cancer. Mammography detects breast cancer at an early phase, when treatment is

more effectual, and a remedy is more likely. Treatment involves considering tumor size, degree

of spread, and other features, as well as patient predilection, and then tumor cells are removed

surgically or amputation such as in the case of breast cancer (American Cancer Society, 2011).

Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is the most regularly diagnosed cancer in males. Though death rates have

declined more quickly among African American than white men, the death rates are still higher

compared to white men. Early prostate cancer usually lacks symptoms. As the cancer advances,

men may suffer weak or interrupted urine flow; incapability to urinate or intricacy starting or

halting the urine flow; the need to urinate regularly, especially at night; blood presence in the

urine; or burning sensation or pain with urination. The only well-established inducing factors for

prostate cancer are race/ethnicity, age and family history of this cancer. Detection can be done

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through routine testing with the PSA test. Treatment alternatives differ depending on stage, age

and grade of cancer, on top of other medical conditions (Cyllene, 2010).

Drugs Approved For Lung, Breast, Prostate, Colon And Rectal Cancer.

Abraxane is particularly designated for the early treatment of locally progressed or

metastatic non-small cell lung cancer, in an amalgamation with carboplatin, in cancer patients

who are not entrants for radiation therapy or curative surgery. Side effects include anemia,

nausea and fatigue(National Cancer Institute, 2012).

Afinitor is exclusively approved for the cure of postmenopausal women with advanced

hormone receptor-positive, HER2-negative breast cancer (advanced HR+ BC) in an

amalgamation with exemestane, following failure of treatment with letrozole or anastrozole. The

side effects are mainly fatigue, diarrhea, edema, abdominal pain, alopecia and nausea(National

Cancer Institute, 2012).

Xtandi is specially designated for the treatment of individuals with metastatic castration-

resistant prostate cancer who have beforehand obtained docetaxel. Some of the side effects

include asthenia/fatigue, back pain, diarrhea, and arthralgia.(National Cancer Institute, 2012)

Zaltrap (ziv-aflibercept) is exploited in colorectal cancer treatment, is a blending protein

exclusively crafted to attach all varities of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-A (VEGF-A) and

Placental Growth Factor (PlGF). Both PlGF and VEGF-A are proteins that participate in the

abnormal formation of new blood vessels. Its side effects are weight loss, diarrhea, stomatitis and

headache. All these drugs were approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in

2012(National Cancer Institute, 2012).

Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Chemotherapy

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Rituximab (Rituxan) is permitted by the FDA as a drug to treat of B-cell lymphoma.

Rituximab reduces the number of B cells, together with healthy B cells, but the body synthesizes

new healthy B cells to reinstate these. The cancerous B cells are less expected to reappear. The

side effects include low blood pressure, irregular heartbeats and difficulty in breathing (National

Cancer Institute, 2012).

Minorities And Underserved Communities Have Greater Incidence Of And Deaths Related To

Cancer.

There has been significant advancement in trimming down cancer death rates in the United

States. However, death rates in persons with lower socioeconomic status, as defined by

education, occupation, or residence, has shown little or no decrease, and even increased in some

instances. Similarly, the reduction in cancer death rates in minorities happened later and has been

sluggish measured up to those of whites. As a consequence, the breach in mortality rates between

disadvantaged and advantaged segments of the US populace has persisted to broaden. Disparities

principally crop up from disproportions in work, income, wealth, housing, education and general

standard of living, in addition to social obstacles, to first-rate early detection, cancer prevention,

and, treatment services. The government should avail subsidized cancer screening, prevention,

treatment and edification to cater for those with a low socioeconomic status (American Cancer

Society, 2011).

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References

American Cancer Society. (2011). Cancer Facts and Figures. 1-60.

Cyllene, M. (2010). Trends in Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Risk Factors and Health Behaviors in

California. 1-115.

Kevin, H. (2006). Cancer Incidence and Mortality in New Jersey. 1-54.

National Cancer Institute. (2012). Types of Cancer. Retrieved November 29, 2012, from National Cancer

Institute: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/non-hodgkin

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