CHICAGO Sample Literature Review Lysergic Acid Diethylamide LSD

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Literature Review: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)

Effects of LSD on the Body and the Brain

LSD is a widely and highly potent chemical which affects the users’ moods. After

its discovery in 1938, its artificial production has spread over many countries. It is a

product of lysergic acid which is commonly present in fungi, especially ergot. Ergot

germinates and develops on grains such as rye.

’

Commercially, it is available in form of

capsules, liquids, and tablets, thus its mode of usage is exclusively oral. Commonly, it

added on papers with absorbent features and then subdivided into pieces which are highly

decorated. Each piece is deemed to be a singular dosage. The ensuing experiences (called

“trips”), after its ingestion, are enduring and may last for up to a whole day.

’

The drug occasions hallucinations; weighty misrepresentations in individuals’

discernment of realism. The perceive images, sounds, and images which appear to be

actual but are illusory and experience rapid and intense swings in emotions.

This is

brought about by interferences in how various neurotransmitters, especially serotonin,

Andy Roberts, Albion Dreaming: A Popular History of LSD in Britain (U.K: Marshall Cavendish, 2008),3-8.

“Medical Uses of Illicit Drugs,” Schaffer Library, accessed May 11, 2012,

http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/meduse.htm

George Aghajanian and Gerard Marek, “Serotonin and Hallucinogens.” Neuropsychopharmacology 1(1999): 16S-22S

George Aghajanian, “Mescaline and LSD facilitate the activation of locus coeruleus neurons by peripheral stimuli.” Brain

Res 186(1980): 492–495.

Aghajanian, George, Electrophysiology of serotonin receptor subtypes and signal transduction mechanisms. In Bloom

FE, Kupfer DJ (eds), Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress (New York, Raven Press, 1995), 451–460

interact with the neural cells.

The system of serotonin is amply spread throughout the

spinal cord as well as the brain and is linked with controlling perceptual, regulatory

systems which entail hunger, temperature, sexual urges as well as moods, control of

muscles and perception of sensations.

’

The exact alterations on perception brought about by ingested LSD are not yet

understood. There have been suggestions that, like all plants which are hallucinogenic,

LSD impacts on particular receptors of serotonin (5-HT2), with the effects being marked

into regions with the brain; LC (locus ceruleus) and CC (cerebral cortex). CC involves

controlling of perception, cognition as well as moods while LC is the predominant

receiver or detector of signals of sensation, especially for significant externally-

originating stimuli. LSD’s effects set in after about half an hour after it is ingested, with

the “trips” being described as having become “bad” if the effects or experiences are

acute.

’

Most of the “trips” entail both enjoyable and distasteful aspects with the effects

being highly erratic and varying according to the LSD amounts consumed as well the

users’ expectations, circumstances, moods, and personality.

LSD’s effects on the body

include enhancement of the pressure of blood as well as heart rates, diminished appetites,

dizziness and drying of the mouth. Others include nausea, sweating, body tremors, and

Grof Stanislav et al., “LSD-Assisted Psychotherapy in Patients with Terminal Cancer.”

International Pharmacopsychiatry 8 (1973): 129-38

George Aghajanian and Gerard Marek, “Serotonin and Hallucinogens.” Neuropsychopharmacology 1(1999): 16S-22S

Andy Roberts, Albion Dreaming: A Popular History of LSD in Britain (U.K: Marshall

Cavendish, 2008), 11-13

George Aghajanian and Gerard Marek, 16S-22S

George Aghajanian, “Mescaline and LSD facilitate the activation of locus coeruleus neurons by peripheral stimuli.”

Brain Res 186(1980):492–495

Aghajanian, George, Electrophysiology of serotonin receptor subtypes and signal transduction mechanisms. In Bloom

FE, Kupfer DJ (eds), Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress (New York, Raven Press, 1995), 451–460

numbness.

Nevertheless, the chief effects can be seen on the sensory and the emotional

states. There are rapid emotional shifts ranging from euphoria to fear; the rapidity at

times heightens as to have the user experiences varied emotions concurrently.

LSD effects upon senses are highly dramatic; smells, colors, sounds along with

all other sensations become acutely intensified and magnified. Perceptions of the

sensations at times blend (synesthesia). Individuals experiencing synesthesia seem as if

they feel or hear colorations and sight sounds. The hallucinations also entail illusory

perceptions of transformations or distortions of movements as well as shapes, as well as

time which is viewed as passing off too slowly. Some LSD users feel as if their bodies’

shapes are being altered. Some of the “trips” are typified by enjoyable and mind-

stimulating sensations, producing feelings of augmented understanding. The “bad” ones

entail thoughts which nightmarish as well as terrifying; with lots of despair, anxiety, and

fears about loss of self-control, death or insanity.

All these effects are occasioned by the drug, distorting psychoses and

disorganizing individual’s abilities to recognize actuality, rational thinking, and their

communication. Some users undergo psychologically devastating effects which may

endure following the “trips”, occasioning almost permanent states which are psychotic in

their character. Enduring psychosis caused by the drug might entail dramatic swings in

moods; fluctuating through hallucinations, profound clinical depressions, vibrant visual

George Aghajanian and Gerard Marek, 16S-22S

George Aghajanian, “Mescaline and LSD facilitate the activation of locus coeruleus neurons by peripheral stimuli.”

Brain Res 186(1980): 492–495

Aghajanian, George, Electrophysiology of serotonin receptor subtypes and signal transduction mechanisms. In Bloom

FE, Kupfer DJ (eds), Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress (New York, Raven Press, 1995), 451–460

troubles, and mania. Such psychosis may go on for numerous years, affecting even those

with no determined histories of mental disorders.

In a number of users, some “flashback” experiences are reported. Such

experiences are clinically referred as HPPD (Hallucinogen Post Perceptual Disorder).

HPPD’s experiences are impulsive, habitual, occasionally unremitting reappearances of

various sensory misrepresentations initially created by the drug.

HPPD might entail

hallucinations but is commonly typified by illustrative disturbances like the sighting of

fake movements about a vision-field’s edges, colored and bright flashes, and object-

attachments like trails and radiance. The “flashback” experiences are characteristically

unremitting and may persist for numerous years, following LSD-usage.

Heightened degrees of LSD-dependency rapidly develop in users following

recurring uses with the users requiring gradually more dosages toward the generation of

comparable effects. The drug also induces tolerances for more hallucinogenic substances

like mescaline as well as psilocybin.

But no such tolerances have been reported in the

case of cannabis, PCP or even amphetamines. These might be because the cannabis, PCP

or even amphetamines do not directly affect receptors of serotonin-like LSD. The

tolerances are only transitory, lost in stoppage of the use of LSD, even for a day or

so.

’

Medicinal Uses of LSD

George Aghajanian and Gerard Marek, 16S-22S

George Aghajanian, “Mescaline and LSD facilitate the activation of locus coeruleus neurons by peripheral stimuli.”

Brain Res 186(1980): 492–495

George Aghajanian and Gerard Marek, 16S-22S

Aghajanian, George, Electrophysiology of serotonin receptor subtypes and signal transduction mechanisms. In Bloom

FE, Kupfer DJ (eds), Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress (New York, Raven Press, 1995)451–460

George Aghajanian and Gerard Marek, 16S-22S

George Aghajanian, “Mescaline and LSD facilitate the activation of locus coeruleus neurons by peripheral stimuli.”

Brain Res 186(1980):492–495

In the 1950s and the 60s, some governments allowed for experimentations

employing LSD, with an objective of creating LSD-based weapons for use in warfare.

During this period, numerous psychiatrists also took a keen interest in the drug. They

were convinced that despite the then ongoing marginalization of LSD, it had probable

benefits to humanity as psychotherapeutic supplements or in pious activities like

meditations. Since then, studies have been conducted to establish the probable benefits,

especially in controlling anxiety in patients who are terminally-sick.

’

A study conducted by SMSPT’s (Swiss Medical Society for Psycholytic

Therapy) Gasser showed that psychedelics who had LSD administered on them, showed

remarkable, favorable improvements in their emotions, with none of them experiencing

fright, or further toward reactions. Some of the patients were capable of conquering their

persistent anxieties, thus easing their return to employment. The experimentation took

place under stringent timelines, in hushed, pitch-black rooms, replete with crisis medical

gears. All subjects underwent psychological evaluations as well as psychotherapeutic

sessions before ingesting the LSD dosages.

’

Another research has indicated that LSD may be effective if employed to enhance

creativity and modifying conscious awareness. There is lots of promise that LSD may in

future become highly applicable in and effective for psychotherapeutic interventions for

psychedelics. From past studies, it is notable that therapeutic concerns in LSD stem from

the certainties that in past experimentations, the involve subjects appear to be less

“LSD Returns--For Psychotherapeutics: LSD makes a comeback as a possible

clinical treatment,” Scientific American, accessed May 11, 2012, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=return-of-a-

problem-child

“Medical Uses of Illicit Drugs,” Schaffer Library, accessed May 11, 2012,

http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/meduse.htm

Grof Stanislav et al., “LSD-Assisted Psychotherapy in Patients with Terminal Cancer.”

International Pharmacopsychiatry 8 (1973): 129-38

“LSD Returns--For Psychotherapeutics: LSD makes a comeback as a possible

clinical treatment,” Scientific American, accessed May 11, 2012, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=return-of-a-

problem-child

anxious, guilty and depressed as well as more tolerant, self-appreciating and with more

sensual alertness.

’

Over the years, lots of interest has also stemmed from apparent probabilities of

usage of strong psychedelic occurrences of concentrated transference, figurative drama,

abreaction, and regression in improving psychodynamic psychotherapeutic outcomes.

Foremost, two therapy natures have emerged, with one employing conversational and

mystical experiences while the other makes psychoanalysis-like unconscious

explorations.

The first of the psychedelic therapies (employing conversational and

mystical experiences) entailed usage of 200µg or larger amounts of LSD for each

session.

The dosages were found to be potentially supportive of reforming criminals as

well as and enhancing livelihoods in the general populace.

In the second form (using

psychoanalysis-like unconscious explorations and often called the PP, “Psycholytic

Therapy”) entailed the utilization of smaller, multiple LSD dosages for each session or a

multiple of sessions. The PP was mainly employed for disorders which were

psychosomatic or even neurotic. In reality, numerous permutations, distinctions, and

extraordinary applications bearing both psychedelic and psycholytic features involving

LSD are commonly in use.

’

“Discoverer of LSD Urges Medical Use of the Drug,” Reuters Health, accessed May 11, 2012,

http://www.maps.org/media/reutershealth4.16.03.html

“Medical Uses of Illicit Drugs,” Schaffer Library, accessed May 11, 2012,

http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/meduse.htm

Grof Stanislav et al., 135-38

Kurland Albert, The Therapeutic Potential of LSD in Medicine. In R. DeBold and R. Leaf, eds., LSD, Man, and Society.

(Middletown, Corm.: Wesleyan University Press, 1967), 20-35.

“R & D Medicines: LSD/Psilocybin for Anxiety-Related and Life-Threatening Illness,” Multidisciplinary Association for

Psychedelic Studies, accessed May 11, 2012, http://www.maps.org/research/cluster/psilo-lsd/

“LSD Returns--For Psychotherapeutics: LSD makes a comeback as a possible clinical treatment,” Scientific American,

accessed May 11, 2012, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=return-of-a-problem-child

“Medical Uses of Illicit Drugs,” Schaffer Library, accessed May 11, 2012,

http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/meduse.htm

Bibliography

Aghajanian, George, “Mescaline and LSD facilitate the activation of locus coeruleus

neurons by peripheral stimuli.” Brain Res 186(1980):492–498

Aghajanian, George. Electrophysiology of serotonin receptor subtypes and signal

transduction mechanisms. In Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ (eds), Psychopharmacology:

The Fourth Generation of Progress. New York, Raven Press, 1995

Aghajanian, George, and Gerard Marek. “Serotonin and Hallucinogens.”

Neuropsychopharmacology 1(1999): 16S-23S

Albert, Kurland. The Therapeutic Potential of LSD in Medicine. In R. DeBold and R.

Leaf, eds., LSD, Man, and Society. Middletown, Corm.: Wesleyan University

Press, 1967

Glass, Nigel. “Discoverer of LSD Urges Medical Use of the Drug,” Reuters Health, April

16, 2003, accessed May 11, 2015,

http://www.maps.org/media/reutershealth4.16.03.html

Grinspoon, Lester and James Bakalar. “Medical Uses of Illicit Drugs,” Schaffer Library,

accessed May 11, 2015,

http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/meduse.htm

MAPS. “R & D Medicines: LSD/Psilocybin for Anxiety-Related and Life-Threatening

Illness,” Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies, September 24,

2009, accessed May 11, 2015, http://www.maps.org/research/cluster/psilo-lsd/

Roberts, Andy. Albion Dreaming: A Popular History of LSD in Britain. U.K: Marshall

Cavendish, 2008.

Stanislav, Grof et al. “LSD-Assisted Psychotherapy in Patients with Terminal Cancer.”

International Pharmacopsychiatry 8 (1973): 129-41.

Stix, Gary. “LSD Returns--For Psychotherapeutics: LSD makes a comeback as a possible

clinical treatment,” Scientific American, September 24, 2009, accessed May 11,

2015, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=return-of-a-problem-

child

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