Coronary Heart Disease | EssayIvy.com

Running head: CORONARY HEART DISEASE

Coronary Heart Disease

Name

Institution

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 2

Coronary Heart Disease

Introduction

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) is a disease which affects the heart and is characterized

by the coronary arteries getting blocked or narrowed down by a substance which builds up inside

the coronary arteries and is known as plaque, thus altering blood flow of oxygenated blood into

the heart tissues. According to Santuli (2013), the buildup of plaque takes place over an extended

period. At times the plaque may rupture, and in turn, a blood clot may form. If a blood clot forms

up, it may be big enough to completely block the coronary artery and thus block the flow of

oxygenated blood to heart muscles. When blood stream to the heart tissues is obstructed or

immensely reduced, there is the likelihood of a person developing angina or heart attack. In an

article written by Deloukas, et al, (2013), it is stated that angina is characterized by sharp chest

pain or discomfort brought about by the struggle of blood to flow into the heart tissues through

the coronary arteries. On the other hand, heart failure follows when the heart muscles fail to

receive adequate oxygenated blood to a section or the whole heart. Failure of quick response to

heart failure it may lead to more severe health conditions or eventually cause death. Over some

time, CHD can lead to heart failure, a condition in which the heart cannot efficiently pump blood

that is adequate for the body's demands. According to studies, CHD is brought about by several

factors which include lifestyle, genetics, diet and other diseases may as well contribute to

development of Coronary Heart Disease. CHD can be prevented before its development through

several ways, which include control of the risk factors to delay or entirely prevent the disease as

well. Apparently, CHD can affect any age and gender (Gillespie et al, 2013). According to the

CDC statistics, in the United States, CHD causes at least 370,000 deaths. The most affected

population by CHD is the old group (Roger et al¸2012). This paper takes a look at the etiology of

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 3

CHD, also regarded to as coronary artery disease, risk factors, and also the management of the

CHD.

Etiology of CHD

Coronary Heart Disease is caused by several aspects which can be categorized to as

biological, psychological and social factors. According to research, it is suggested that CHD

develops when the inner part of coronary arteries are impaired (Dawber et al, 2015). Apparently,

the damages are brought about by the factors mentioned earlier which lie in either or the

categories.

Biological factors

Genetics- Genes are the principal vehicle for transfer of any infections that are

genetically inherent from parents to offspring. Several diseases do not just develop from

environmental factors or other disease-causing organisms but are instead transferred from

parents to the offspring via genes (Dawber et al, 2015). CHD is one of the conditions that are

inherent, which means that if the family had a history of CHD, there are chances of having the

disease in the entire generation.

In a study carried out on Afro-Caribbean individuals and compared to whites, to

determine the Genetic Risk Score, differences were established. It is suggested in the results of

the study that the differences in the occurrences of the CHD among the Afro-Caribbean and the

whites are as an outcome of discrepancies in the variant distribution of genes in the two groups

(Collet et al, 2012). Larifla et al, (2016), explains that the development of CHD in individuals is

dependent on the complex interaction between the genetic and environmental factors and thus

making the industrialized countries have higher incidences of the disease. People in

industrialized nations tend to be affected by the ecological pollutions and the kind of lifestyle

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 4

they live which in turn affects their genes which are later transferred to their generation, thus

making CHD consistent in the regions. In the study also, it was established that lack of

substantial correlation between traditional cardiovascular risk factors and the CHD incidence

could be the reason behind inter-population variability in coronary-related deaths. The Afro-

Caribbean showed a low incidence of CHD as compared to whites, indicating that the differences

in genes susceptibility between two populations is a significant contributor to the more average

deaths caused by CHD in Afro-Caribbeans.

Presence of other diseases such as Obesity- Coronary Heart Disease can be as well

contributed by the presence of other infections in the body. Most of these infections that bring

about the development of CHD are cardiovascular diseases as well. Obesity is one of the

disorders that highly contribute to the development of CHD. Obesity is a prevalent disease that is

popular in the US and other developing nations because of the lifestyle of individuals. However,

according to studies, the relationship between obesity and Coronary Heart Disease is not so clear

and is viewed to be indirect. Nonetheless, the comorbidities that relate CHD and obesity increase

as obesity increases and also connect to body fat distribution (Deloukas et al, 2013). Long-term

studies have indicated that obesity does not only link to CHD but predicts coronary

atherosclerosis independently.

Age and gender- Age and sex is another factor that contributes to the development of the

occurrence of CHD. It is reported that four out of five people who die of CHD are at least 65

years old and above. As an individual grows older, the blood vessels also get less flexible than

they were at their young age thus making the flow of blood to be impaired. As one gets older,

exercising habits deteriorates automatically and thus creating a suitable environment for the

deposition of plaque in the artery walls. In the years back, heart diseases were known to be only

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 5

affecting men, but now it is evident that women are affected as well. However, men may tend to

develop CHD earlier I life as compared to women. Women also have many risk factors that

include smoking, high cholesterol and other factors that facilitate the development of CHD, thus

making them susceptible as well (Mozaffarian et al, 2014). Studies show that symptoms of CHD

in women who have diabetes can be very subtle.

Sleep apnea- According to Kasai et al (2012), Sleep apnea is a condition that causes an

individual to stop breathing while asleep. Apparently, stopping to breathe means that oxygen

levels in the blood will drop and as a result of the heart tissues as well may lack adequate

oxygenated blood. Also, there will be straining of the cardiovascular system and increase in

blood pressure which in turn may lead to the development of CHD. However, scientists are still

researching on the possibility of sleep apnea to cause CHD.

Blood vessels inflammation- when blood vessels get inflamed, the radius will apparently

reduce. Blood vessels inflammation may be as a result of physical injuries through accidents. If

the coronary arteries get inflamed, the blood supply through them will significantly be affected,

and thus the heart tissues fail to receive efficient oxygenated blood, and as a result section or the

entire heart, muscles fail to pump blood that meets the needs of the body adequately

(Mozaffarian et al, 2014). Long-term failure of supply of oxygenated blood to heart tissues may

risk the heart tissues from dying and thus causing heart failure which may result in severe heart

conditions and even death.

High blood sugar levels- according to Mozaffarian et al, (2014), a study was conducted

on individuals with diabetes and indicated that there was a remarkable association between

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), and escalating CHD risk. The research established that individuals

without diabetes but high normal HbA1c levels in their blood were at high risk of developing

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 6

CHD. High blood sugar levels apparently lead to hardening of blood vessels including the

coronary arteries, a condition known as atherosclerosis which in turn narrow the radius of the

blood vessels and impair blood flow rate.

Psychological factors

Stress- stress is among the psychological factors that are believed to lead to the

development of CHD. However, some scientists dispute that there is no existence of a direct link

between stress and the heart's health. On the other hand, research shows some connection

between the brain and the heart since the brain controls all activities of the body. Thus, when an

individual is stressed, the blood pressure and blood sugar levels are affected and cause the

development of factors that are known risk factors for CHD, and example is hypertension and

raised blood sugar levels. For instance, when there is high blood pressure, the coronary arteries

may be adversely affected and thus pose a risk of CHD development (Cooper, & Marshall,

2013). Also, the rise in blood sugar level due to stress over a long time contributes to the risk of

developing CHD. Cooper and Marshal further states that stress can affect behaviors and the other

factors that likely escalate the risk of CHD. Some individuals may opt to overdrink when they

have stress as well as smoke cigarettes to manage their stresses. However, the habits increase

blood pressure which as a result may damage artery walls and eventually bring about the

development of CHD.

Depression- several studies have been carried out to determine the relationship between

CHD and depression. Depression is a known cause for morbidity and mortality in Coronary

Heart Disease patients and more so following an acute coronary syndrome. Most of the studies

carried out shows that depression is a disorder that is related to the increase of cardiovascular

activities, patient readmission to a medical care facility and CHD associated deaths (Eysenck,

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 7

2012). Results from studies conducted indicate that patients with heart conditions depression are

20% higher in comparison to healthy individuals. Further, studies show that depression plays a

vital role in the CHD etiology. Depression is brought about by lack of social support from

family, friends, and the community at large. In the studies that were carried out, it is established

that the perceived social support upon hospitalization of patients suffering from CHD decreases

symptoms associated with depression.

Evidently, from results of some studies, depressed people may have sticky platelets. In

patients with heart disease, this may accelerate atherosclerosis which in turn can cause heart

attack, heart failure and other heart conditions that may be chronic to the individual’s health

(Cooper, & Marshall, 2013). Additionally, depressed individuals typically have decreased heart

rate. Lower heart rate is dangerous to the extent of causing a condition known as heart

arrhythmias or in other words blood pressure variations. Low pressure in blood flow means even

the heart tissues may suffer a deficiency in oxygenated blood and thus bring about the

development of CHD. Also, depression along with other risk factors for CHD such as high

cholesterol in the blood is an excellent companion to bring about the development of CHD easily

(Eysenck, 2012). When cholesterol is high in blood, the coronary arteries are likely to be clogged

by cholesterol deposits and in companion with depression which adversely reduces blood

pressure immensely affect the health of the heart and thus bring about Coronary Heart Disease.

Anxiety- In the literature review done by Cooper, & Marshall, (2013), they state that the

role of anxiety in the development of CHD is still unclear despite the many studies conducted.

Evidently, anxiety is independent of depression in the development of CHD. However, in the

same study, the connection between CHD and anxiety was seen to be slightly lower than the

corresponding the link between CHD and depression. A review conducted about physical and

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 8

mental side effects of anxiety in CHD patients uncovered that anxiety is related with physical

factors, for example, palpitation with no physical exercise, anger, and abnormal heart rate that

expands the risk of developing CHD particularly in women (Eysenck, 2012). Anxiety is said to

cause CHD through escalating the risk factors for CHD such as stroke, heart attack, and other

conditions.

Social factors

Social isolation- the relationship between CHD and social isolation and lack of social

support exist as a risk factor of escalating the development of CHD. A study that was carried out

on patients who were discharged from hospital and a group was given social support, and the

other control group was not provided for the same (Rodger et al, 2012). Evidently, from the

research findings, those who were given social support showed significant improvement in their

health since they forgot about their illness and sought for coping life. In the group that did not

have any social help, a significant number was hospitalized, and there was apparently brought

about by depression and stress which as pose as mentioned earlier danger to the heart's health

and in turn cause the development of CHD. Moreover, the study showed that those who were

hospitalized for the first time due to CHD tried to find social support in comparison to those who

had the previous history of hospitalization due to heart diseases. Eysenck, (2012), agree with

Rodger et al, (2012) that those with an earlier account had already coped with life, unlike their

counterparts who suffered for the first time. Isolation plays the same role as stigmatization.

When one is isolated from the society or community, the results are likely to develop stress and

depression which as increases as mentioned above the chances of one suffering from heart

diseases including CHD.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 9

Smoking- Smoking as a factor contributing to the development of CHD is a crucial and

should be prioritized for the fact that cigarette smoking affects the smokers plus the passive

smokers who are the community population at large. In his article, Eysenck, (2012), insist that

passive smokers are the most affected group. Smoking increases the risk of developing CHD

either by itself or along with other risk factors that are said to cause CHD development.

According to studies and evidence from studies carried out, smoking brings about hypertension,

increase of the tendency of blood clotting, as well as decreasing exercises tolerance such that one

cannot endure a lengthy activity. Hypertension is brought about by nicotine in the cigarette

which stimulates the body to start producing adrenaline hormone that consequently makes the

heart to beat at a faster rate and thus bringing about hypertension which may damage the

coronary arteries and as a result developing CHD. Additionally, smoking damages the walls of

the coronary arteries and as a result, atheroma is built up narrowing the radius of the arteries.

This can cause heart stroke, angina as well as the development of CHD. Most importantly to

remember is that smoking involves inhaling carbon monoxide in tobacco. This implies that blood

will be deficient in oxygen; as a result, the heart tissues will also suffer from the deficiency of

oxygenated blood and thus bringing about coronary heart disease (Rodger, et al, 2012). Also, the

heart will be required to pump blood extra harder to achieve the oxygen demand by the body

tissues and organs. As mentioned earlier, passive smokers are also affected, and as a result of

smoking, it means that the family members, friend and the community at large will be at risk of

developing CHD and other heart infections contributed by cigarette smoking (Eysenck, 2012).

According to studies, cigarette smoking damages the structure of the coronary arteries and other

blood vessels as well. Nicotine and other chemicals contained in cigarettes increase the chances

of individuals developing arteriosclerosis which is the clogging of arteries by plaque (Rodger, et

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 10

al, 2012). Eysenck, (2012), in his article adds that the cigarette smoke damages the cells lining

the blood vessels and makes blood to clot in blood vessels which eventually blocks the blood

vessels. These events reduce the amount of oxygen in the body as well as to the heart tissues and

thus the development of CHD. Many smokers practice the habit as part of their lifestyle, and

consequently, the effects are adverse.

Lifestyle- The way people live their life is a weighty determining factor of their health.

This extends to the health of individual's health of their hearts. According to researches carried

out, evidence shows that lifestyle is a significant risk attribute for the developments of CHD. For

instance, people who do not do exercises are likely to suffer from CHD since their body tends to

store excess energy inform of fats beneath the skin and as a result bringing about obesity which

is the leading killer of the United States population. Obesity as aforementioned is a risk factor for

CHD whereby the fat deposits narrow down the radius of the coronary arteries and consequently

increasing the blood pressure and reducing the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart tissues

(Rodger et al, 2012). Secondly, lifestyle involves the diet of individuals. In the developed

nations, people are likely to consume refined foods, fast foods, and junk foods as well. These

kinds of foods are rich in fats which are dangerous to one's health. Consumption of too many fats

leads to obesity and deposit of cholesterol and excess fats in the blood vessels thus clogging the

arteries with plaque. Plaque alters the blood flow rate and consequently the development of

CHD. Alcohol drinking is another kind of lifestyle that is dangerous to the health of the heart.

Too much alcohol causes hypertension which is a risk factor for an individual to develop CHD.

Alcohol also increases the level of cholesterol, triglycerides which can consequently harden

coronary arteries thus making one develop CHD (Rodger et al, 2012). Too much sugar in a diet

is another risk factor for CHD development as well. Heavy consumption of sugars and other

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 11

refined carbohydrates is linked to the development of other factors which also facilitates the

development of CHD such as high blood pressure, metabolic syndrome and escalated risk of

diabetes (Mozaffarian et al, 2014). Sugar causes swelling of artery walls through the generation

of insulin which can consequently damage the endothelial walls of the coronary arteries and

eventually cause coronary heart disease.

Risk factors for CHD

CHD is typically brought about by the presence of suitable environment and triggers that

make it favorable for its development. The actual cause of CHD and many other heart diseases

are not precisely known but in many cases research shows that risk factors are the driving wind

to its development. The more one is exposed to risk factors the more susceptible one can suffer

from CHD. For instance, a risk factor can be present, but one can fail to have CHD. Some of the

risk factors include:

 Insulin resistance by a person's body- insulin is a hormone used to control blood sugar

level in the body. In this state, the body cannot properly use its insulin and as a result,

cause diabetes which is a predisposing factor to the development of CHD (Rodger et al,

2012).

 Diabetes- persons with diabetes have high blood sugar levels which are dangerous to

health as well as the health of the heart. High blood sugar levels may damage the inner

lining of the coronary blood vessels and consequently affect the blood flow of

oxygenated blood to heart tissues, thus posing one to the tendency of developing CHD

(Rodger et al, 2012)

 Physical inactivity- when one does not do regular exercises, the body stores the extra

energy in the form of fats beneath the skin and excess fats will be deposited in endothelial

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 12

walls of coronary arteries. Deposit of fats in the blood vessels raises the alarm for one

developing CHD since the blood flow of oxygenated blood will be insufficient to heart

tissues (Rodger et al, 2012).

 Older age- Rodger et al, (2012), as one age, the chances of plaque building up in arteries

also increase. According to scientists, the risk among men comes in an earlier age of

about 45 as compared to women who get the risk of developing CHD at 55yrs old and

above.

 Additionally, there are emerging risk factors that are still under study to establish their

contribution to the development of CHD. One of the emerging risk factors is

inflammation of the arteries. Inflammation of arteries can be as a result of the body’s

response mechanism to injuries or infection (Mozaffarian et al, 2014). If the endothelial

lining of arteries is damaged or injured, there will be the likelihood of blood clotting

inside the arteries and as a result help in plaque formation which will consequently end

up to one developing CHD.

 Consumption of excess alcohol is another risk factor for developing CHD. Alcohol has a

high amount of hidden sugars which are apparently predisposing factor for diabetes and

other heart diseases (Eysenck, 2012). Heavy consumption of alcohol can damage the

heart muscles and escalate other CHD risk factors.

 Cooper, & Marshall, (2013) in their book state that stress, anxiety, and depression are

independent risk factors to the development of CHD. Each of these psychological

conditions has not yet apparently been found to cause coronary heart disease directly but

instead is said to risk factors as they affect the cardiovascular events such as the blood

pressure, heart beat rate, and also alter blood sugar levels in the blood. The psychological

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 13

conditions are said to reduce or increase heart rate and as a result straining the heart to

pump blood and sometimes slow down the heart rate, and consequently, the heart tissues

suffer from the deficiency of oxygenated blood and therefore the development of CHD.

 A family history of CHD can be a paramount predisposing factor for the disease.

However, it is not a guarantee that every offspring will develop the coronary heart

disease as there are those who can just be carriers (Deloukas, et al, 2013). Nevertheless,

there are possibilities of pone developing coronary heart disease if the family has a

history of CHD as the genes are transferred to the off springs involuntarily.

 An unhealthy diet can significantly contribute to one developing CHD as some foods are

too much processed and contain saturated fats which later are deposited in the endothelial

walls of arteries (Mozaffarian et al, 2014). Deposition of sugars, salts, and fats in arterial

walls forms plaque which narrows down the radius of the arteries and as a result, CHD

develops as the heart muscles will not have adequate oxygenated blood to work at its

optimum level.

 Smoking whether passive or active is a predisposing factor for and individual to develop

CHD. Carbon monoxide and other chemicals in cigarette reduce the amount of oxygen in

blood thus making the heart to strain to pump blood to attain the minimum amount of

oxygen needed by the body. As mentioned earlier, nicotine and other chemicals in

cigarette damages the endothelial walls of arteries and thus putting one in danger of

developing CHD (Eysenck, 2012). Smoking also leads to unhealthy levels of cholesterol

in the blood and tighten blood vessels as well.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 14

Prevention of CHD

Coronary heart disease can be manned and prevented by easily keeping a distance from the risk

factors and the known causative factors for the disease. For instance, high levels of blood

cholesterol, hypertension and obesity can be avoided to prevent or delay the onset of coronary

heart disease (Cooper, & Marshall, 2013).

In the article Psychosocial Factors in the Prevention of Cancer and Coronary Heart

Eysenck, (2012), demonstrates precisely that reducing or entirely avoiding cigarette smoking and

heavy alcohol consumption can significantly be a preventive measure to prevent coronary heart

disease. Nutritionist strongly advises that if it is entirely unavoidable to stop alcohol

consumption, then women should not consume more than one bottle of alcoholic drink in a day

and men should as well not exceed two bottles of alcohol per day. Avoiding these, can delay or

entirely prevent development of CHD

Maintaining a healthy weight and doing physical activities on a regular basis can be of

great help also to prevent the onset of CHD.

Mozaffarian et al, (2014), demonstrate in their article how practicing a habit of heart-

healthy eating behavior is of paramount significance in preventing coronary heart diseases. For

instance consumption of fruits such as apples which are suitable for the health of the heart to

ensure that the heart is always healthy to perform its duties of efficiently pumping blood to body

parts and its tissues through the coronary arteries.

Regular checkups for cardiovascular diseases are strongly advised. Early diagnosis of the

cardiovascular conditions is of great significance in handling and treatment of the disease since

in early stages it is cheap and easier to control. According to studies carried out by (Mozaffarian

et al, (2014), those who get an early diagnosis of the infections live a healthy life as the disease is

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 15

maintained by medication or preventive measures to avoid worsening the condition to a more

severe stage.

According to Cooper, & Marshall, (2013), stress management is another remarkable risk

factor that should be learned by everyone. Advice can be sought from counselors and medical

practitioners. It is evident from several research findings that some people try to cope stress by

drinking alcohol, smoking or even overeating. All these are risk factors that can make one

develop CHD. People suffering from coronary heart disease or other heart diseases may

experience some symptoms such as angina when they are stressed or depressed. The

consequence may be much fatal to the extent of causing stroke which eventually may result in

death. To manage stress and depression, one can learn on several modifiable techniques such as

exercising and taking balanced diet.

Signs symptoms and complications of coronary heart disease

The most popular symptom of CHD is a condition known as angina. Angina is a chest

pain experienced in the part of the heart muscle that does not receive an efficient supply of

oxygenated blood. It is a sharp pain and may feel like a squeezing feeling or pressure in the chest

(Nashimura et al, 2014). This is due to the straining of the heart to pump blood. Angina gets

worse with activity and get away when the body is at rest.

Another common symptom of coronary heart disease is breath shortness. Shortness of

breath occurs when coronary heart disease causes heart failure. In the case of heart failure, the

heart fails to adequately pump blood to the entire body; as a result, blood fills up in the lungs

making it hard to breathe (Carson et al, 2013). Thus this can tell the possibility of one having

CHD.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 16

Further, Dawber, et al, (2015), states that some CHD patients may not possess any signs

and symptoms. This condition is regarded with as silent coronary heart disease. It might be

difficult to diagnose the presence of the disease until the patient experiences heart attack, stroke

or arrhythmia.

A heart attack happens when a heart's section is not well supplied with blood rich in

oxygen or blood supply to the area is completely cut off. Blood supply may be cut off or reduced

if coronary arteries of the section of the heart are full of plaque or the coronary artery ruptures

and consequently blood forms clots and eventually block up blood flow to a part of the heart

through the coronary blood vessels. When blockage of blood supply is not quickly sorted out, the

section of the heart supplied with blood by the blocked coronary artery begins to die and as may

forth bring more severe consequences. The symptoms of a heart attack are likely similar to that

of angina characterized by sharp chest pain and discomfort (Nashimura et al, 2014). Heart attack

involves distress in the left side or center of the chest which often last for a short time or at times

comes and goes away.

If the heart fails, it does not mean that the heart stops to work or is almost to stop beating.

Symptoms of a heart failure condition include breath shortness, swelling of veins, and fatigue.

All these are brought about by building up of blood in the body since the heart cannot pump the

blood sufficiently (Nashimura et al, 2014). Heart failure is a symptom that can help in the

prediction of the presence of coronary heart infection.

Arrhythmia is a condition characterized by heart rate or the rhythm at which the heart

pumps blood. The condition is commonly known to cause too fast heartbeats or the heart

skipping heart beats at some point. Patients experiencing arrhythmia, feel palpitations in the

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 17

chest (Carson et al, 2013). If the condition is not treated earlier, it may result in death due to

sudden cardiac arrest where the heart suddenly stops to beat.

Diagnosis

Coronary heart disease can be diagnosed by a physician by checking on the family

history, exposure to risk factors and physical examinations. There is no specific test for CHD,

and as a result, when the physician suspects coronary heart disease, some tests are recommended

to determine the presence of CHD (Remenyi, et al, 2012). The tests include;

Blood tests- as aforementioned, blood sugar levels assess the risk of one developing

CHD, thus some abnormal sugar, cholesterol, fats, and proteins in the blood may indicate a risk

of developing CHD.

Echocardiography- this test involves the use of sound waves to develop moving images

of the heart. The test shows areas where there is poor blood flow, damages that are in the heart,

as well as the muscles that are not operating normally (contracting and relaxing).

Electrocardiogram (EKG) - this is a painless test that determines the rhythm and heart

rate. The test detects the heart's electrical activities. This test is helpful as it can show damages to

the heart due to coronary heart disease.

Chest x-ray- this test involves taking of images of the internal organs of the heart and

their structures. The test can show heart failure signs as well as other signs not related to

coronary heart disease.

Coronary angiography- this test is applicable when the other tests have shown the

likelihood of the patient to have CHD. A dye is released into the bloodstream in the heart, and

some special x-rays used to study the flow of blood in the heart by the physician.

Treatment of CHD

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 18

According to Mohr, et al, (2013), there are several treatment approaches to manage CHD.

Surgical therapies include Percutaneous Coronary Intervention and Coronary Artery Bypass

Grafting. These procedures involve nonsurgical procedure of restoring the radius of the arteries

clogged with plaque, and using veins and arteries from other parts of the body to bypass the

clogged blood vessels respectively.

Other medical treatment approaches of the CHD involves prescription of drugs

that will lower hypertension, prevent blood clotting in blood vessels, and medicines that reduce

chances of having heart attacks.

However, Rosendorff, et al, (2015), argues that most of the treatment approaches involve

rehabilitative approaches and application of preventive measure against risk factors. These are,

stopping smoking habits, stopping alcoholism, managing stress, practicing heart-healthy eating

behaviors and maintaining healthy body weight.

Conclusion

In sum, coronary heart disease is the major killer not only in the US but also the entire world.

CHD affects both sexes, however, men tend to develop the disease as early as 45 in their life as

compared to women who may experience the disease in their late 50s. CHD has no specific

defined cause. CHD is brought about by risk factors which are biological, psychological and

social factors. CHD if not treated early can lead to more severe heart conditions that can

eventually cause death. According to research findings, CHD can be easily prevented or delayed

by keeping a distance from the predisposing risk factors. Early diagnosis of CHD dramatically

helps in the management and prevention of the disease. Rehabilitation and medical surgery can

be used to treat CHD and other conditions which are underlying risk factors to the development

of CHD.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 19

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 20

References

Carson, J. L., Brooks, M. M., Abbott, J. D., Chaitman, B., Kelsey, S. F., Triulzi, D. J., ... &

Noveck, H. (2013). Liberal versus restrictive transfusion thresholds for patients with

symptomatic coronary artery disease. American heart journal, 165(6), 964-971.

Collet, T. H., Gussekloo, J., Bauer, D. C., den Elzen, W. P., Cappola, A. R., Balmer, P., ... &

Gencer, B. (2012). Subclinical hyperthyroidism and the risk of coronary heart disease and

mortality. Archives of internal medicine, 172(10), 799-809.

Cooper, C. L., & Marshall, J. (2013). Occupational sources of stress: A review of the literature

relating to coronary heart disease and mental ill health. In From Stress to Wellbeing

Volume 1 (pp. 3-23). Palgrave Macmillan UK.

Dawber, T. R., Moore, F. E., & Mann, G. V. (2015). II. Coronary Heart Disease in the

Framingham Study. International journal of epidemiology, 44(6), 1767-1780.

Deloukas, P., Kanoni, S., Willenborg, C., Farrall, M., Assimes, T. L., Thompson, J. R., ... &

Stirrups, K. (2013). Large-scale association analysis identifies new risk loci for coronary

artery disease. Nature genetics, 45(1), 25-33.

Eysenck, H. J. (2012). Smoking, personality, and stress: Psychosocial factors in the prevention of

cancer and coronary heart disease. Springer Science & Business Media.

Gillespie, C. D., Wigington, C., & Hong, Y. (2013). Coronary heart disease and stroke deaths-

United States, 2009. MMWR Surveill Summ, 62(Suppl 3), 157-160.

Kasai, T., Floras, J. S., & Bradley, T. D. (2012). Sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease.

Circulation, 126(12), 1495-1510.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 21

Larifla, L., Beaney, K. E., Foucan, L., Bangou, J., Michel, C. T., Martino, J., ... & Humphries, S.

E. (2016). Influence of genetic risk factors on coronary heart disease occurrence in Afro-

Caribbeans. Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 32(8), 978-985.

Mohr, F. W., Morice, M. C., Kappetein, A. P., Feldman, T. E., Ståhle, E., Colombo, A., ... &

Houle, V. M. (2013). Coronary artery bypass graft surgery versus percutaneous coronary

intervention in patients with three-vessel disease and left main coronary disease: 5-year

follow-up of the randomised, clinical SYNTAX trial. The lancet, 381(9867), 629-638.

Mozaffarian, D., Roger, V. L., Benjamin, E. J., Berry, J. D., ... & Franco, S. (2014). Heart

disease and stroke statistics—2014 update: a report from the American Heart

Association. circulation, 129(3), e28.

Nordestgaard, B. G., Chapman, M. J., Humphries, S. E., Ginsberg, H. N., Masana, L., Descamps,

O. S., ... & Wiegman, A. (2013). Familial hypercholesterolaemia is underdiagnosed and

undertreated in the general population: guidance for clinicians to prevent coronary heart

disease: consensus statement of the European Atherosclerosis Society. European heart

journal, 34(45), 3478-3490.

Reményi, B., Wilson, N., Steer, A., Ferreira, B., Kado, J., Kumar, K., ... & Mocumbi, A. O.

(2012). World Heart Federation criteria for echocardiographic diagnosis of rheumatic

heart disease—an evidence-based guideline. Nature Reviews Cardiology, 9(5), 297-309.

Roger, V. L., Go, A. S., Lloyd-Jones, D. M., Benjamin, E. J., Berry, J. D., Borden, W. B., ... &

Fullerton, H. J. (2012). Executive summary: heart disease and stroke statistics—2012

update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 125(1), 188-197.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE 22

Rosendorff, C., Lackland, D. T., Allison, M., Aronow, W. S., Black, H. R., Blumenthal, R. S., ...

& Gersh, B. J. (2015). Treatment of hypertension in patients with coronary artery disease.

Hypertension, 65(6), 1372-1407.

Santulli, G. (2013). Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in the 21st century: updated

numbers and updated facts. J Cardiovasc Dis, 1(1), 1-2.

Place new order. It's free, fast and safe

Paper type

Deadline

Page count

550 words

Total price: $ 15.00

Our customers say

Jeff Curtis

USA, Student

"I'm fully satisfied with the essay I've just received. When I read it, I felt like it was exactly what I wanted to say, but couldn’t find the necessary words. Thank you!"

Ian McGregor

UK, Student

"I don’t know what I would do without your assistance! With your help, I met my deadline just in time and the work was very professional. I will be back in several days with another assignment!"

Shannon Williams

Canada, Student

"It was the perfect experience! I enjoyed working with my writer, he delivered my work on time and followed all the guidelines about the referencing and contents."