Definition Of Attention According To Cognitive Psychology

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Definition of Attention According to Cognitive Psychology

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ATTENTION

Definition of Attention According to Cognitive Psychology

The term attention as used in psychology is defined as the application of concentration or

focus on a certain phenomenon by an individual to an extent of excluding other stimuli present in

the surrounding environment. It refers to the awareness by an individual of a presence in a given

environment in a manner that is focal and perspective (Gallagher, Werner, Damodaran &

Deutsch, 2015). According to early psychologists including Edward Bradford Tichene, the

concept of attention can be measured by the amount of consciousness paid by a specific

individual to a certain situation (Berlyne, 1951). The psychologists further noted that attention is

significantly affected by the level of quality of conscious experience.

In the subsequent years, since the establishment of the aforementioned discoveries by the

early psychologists, researchers in the field put less emphasis on the subjective element of

consciousness and instead focused on the patterns of the behaviour through which attention can

be recognized in human beings (Lin, Shen, Liu, Luan & Sun, 2016). Evidence shows that the

experiences of human beings are mainly determined by means through which individuals direct

their attention to specific situations in their resident environment (Commodari, 2017). However,

research findings also prove that human beings lack control over the orientation of their

attention. For instance, individuals may sometimes have trouble focusing their attention on

specific tasks, conversations or even a series of events.

In some cases, individuals have experienced instances where their attention is attracted

by unanticipated scenarios or events instead of directing their attention in a voluntary manner

(Golob & Mock, 2018). The concept of attention, thus, is heavily dependent on the state of the

current awareness of individuals, which corresponds with immediate experiences occurring

around his environment. Numerous events always occur within the global environment

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(Gallagher, Werner, Damodaran & Deutsch, 2015). Each of these events usually impinges upon

the senses of an individual prompting him to draw attention towards it. Additionally, other events

that occur within the body of the individual influence his attention in the same way that the

representations of the past occurrences are stored in human memory but are retrievable for

creating awareness when appropriate circumstances arise (Posner, 1995).

Attention is a self-evident concept that every human being either conscious or

unconscious experience at every moment of their individual lives (Ben, Dellagi, Kebir &

Tabbane, 2009). Depending on cognitive psychology as well as the biological process such as the

anatomic system of the neck, ear and the neck, the allotment of cognitive resource, memory and

emotions, behavioural update as well as action planning, it is worth remarkable that attention is

omnipresent. Attention can be described as a highlighter in several instances (Posner & Petersen,

1990). For instance, when a person reads a text section within a book, the highlighted part of the

content is easily noticeable prompting him to concentrate his interest around that area. However,

attention does not only involve having a central focus on a specific item but also entails ignoring

a substantial degree of competing for information as well as stimuli.

The concept of attention enables individuals to stop paying attention to sections of

information, sensations as well as perceptions that are irrelevant at the specified moment (Heuer

& Schubö, 2016). Instead, maximum concentration is directed on the relevant information

associated with a particular event. The Attentional system, therefore, allows individuals to focus

on events or activities that are specified within our environment while tuning out details that are

not relevant (Peacock, Hayes & Henderson, 2018). Such irrelevant details negatively influence the

perception of the stimuli that surround the individuals. In some instances, the attentional system

might focus on a specific situation or activity prompting individuals to ignore other activities.

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In other instances, the act of individuals to focus their attention on the main target night

causes them to completely lose the awareness of the existing second target. This means that

when individuals focus their attention on specific activities within the environment they develop

a tendency to miss on other activities that are in front of their eyes (Moran & Desimone, 1985).

For instance, an individual may be so focused on a particular situation that they consequently

neglect to notice another individual walking into their room of occupation or even talking to

them. The neglect is caused by the concentration of the attentional resources by the individual on

the one thing or activity (Schneider, 2018). More than two models in cognitive psychology explain

how visual attention works.

Such may be loosely considered as metaphors that are utilized to discuss the external

processes as well as formulate falsifiable hypotheses. Visual attention generally functions

through a two-stage process (Sharp, Melcher & Hickey, 2018). During the first stage, attention is

uniformly spread throughout the external visual scene where the processing of information is

conducted in parallel (Carrasco & Barbot, 2018). During the second stage, attention is focused

on a specified area of the visual scene during which information processing is conducted in a

serial fashion. The spotlight model is one of the theoretical frameworks that can be utilized to

explain the literature behind the concept of attention.

The term spotlight was derived from the research work of William James who explained

the concept of attention as possessing the sense of focus, margin as well as fringe (Thapar,

Cooper, Jefferies & Stergiakouli, 2011). The focus refers to an area that is used to derive information

obtained from the visual scene that is characterized by a high resolution, and geometric centre

towards which the visual attention is oriented (Dietze & Knowles, 2016). The fringe of

attention, on the other hand, surrounds the focus, functions to retrieve or extract information in a

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considerably crude fashion, and is usually characterized by a low resolution. The fringe usually

spreads throughout a specific area and the point of its cut-off is normally referred to as the

margin.

The second type of model is referred to as the zoom lens model and was first initiated in

1986. The model has adopted the character of the spotlight that includes the focus, the fringe as

well as the margin (Thapar, Cooper, Jefferies & Stergiakouli, 2011). In addition to the three

properties, zoom lens models also possess an added property known as the change in size. The

use of zoom lens inspired the adoption of the change in size mechanism particularly found on a

camera. Any change is size is usually explained by the trade-off that involves the efficiency of

processing (Fernandez-Duque & Johnson, 1999).

The zoom lens of attention can be explained as the inverse trade-off that involves the

magnitude of the focus as well as the efficacy associated with the processing of information

obtained. Thus, the attentional resources are usually assumed to be fixed in nature which means

that the larger the size of the focus, the slower the rate of information processing around the

region of the visual scene (Gallagher, Werner, Damodaran & Deutsch, 2015). The fixed resource

will also be spread out over a large of an area of focus. The focus of attention is generally

thought that the focus of attention can subtend over a minimum of one per cent of the visual

angle although the maximum magnitude has not yet been computed.

A substantial debate towards the final decade of the twentieth century developed that

compared the feature integration theory (FIT) by Treisman (1993) with the attention engagement

theory by Duncan & Humphrey (1989). The feature integration theory suggests that the objects

that are recuperated from the visual scenes using the selective spatial attention that selects the

features of the object, forms the maps of the feature and incorporates the features located in the

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same location into forming objects (Fernandez-Duque & Johnson, 1999). The attentional

integration theory, on the other hand, portrays the understanding of the concept of attention as

the initial pre attentive parallel phase that involves perceptual segmentations well as the

evaluation that surrounds every visual item that is present in the visual scene. During the initial

pre-attentive parallel phase, the descriptions of the objects within a visual scene are formulated

into structural units.

Consequently, multiple structured representations characterized by a spatial scale are

achieved from the parallel phase (Thapar, Cooper, Jefferies & Stergiakouli, 2011). The selective

attention intercedes after the completion of the parallel stage and is essential in the selection of

information that will be then stored in the visual short-term memory. The major difference the

two theories are found on the emphasis on the separation of visual attention as well as those

mediated by the supplementary cognitive processes (Fernandez-Duque & Johnson, 1999). While

the Feature integration theory suggests that spatial attention is a necessary condition that is

utilized in the detection of objects, the attentional engagement theory argues that the visual

elements are encoded and bound together during the parallel phase in the absence of focal

attention. Additionally, Humphreys asserts that attention is used to select only the objects that are

derived from the initial grouping.

During the twentieth century, Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria conducted a three-part

neuropsychological model that defined the functional brain as a representation of three coactive

processes including attention, memory as well as activation (Gallagher, Werner, Damodaran &

Deutsch, 2015). In the model, attention is explained as one of the critical co-active processes that

occur within a functional brain. Alexandria Luria, through his Higher Cortical Functions in man

published in 1962, summarizes his three component global theory of the functional brain as a

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composition of three constantly co-active processes (Wilschut, Theeuwes & Olivers, 2011). He

explains them like the attention system, the memory system, also known as the mnestic system,

as well as the cortical activation system.

The research works of Vygotsky and Luria has an immense contribution to the modern

day understanding and definition of the concept of attention as perceived in the 21st century

(Fernandez-Duque & Johnson, 1999). The hierarchical model by Sohlberg & Mateer (1987,

1989) during the 21st century that focused on the clinic cases of experimental neuropsychology,

has also contributed remarkably to the understanding of the concept of attention. The two

researchers discovered that the concept of attention is not a single process but comprises a group

of attention sub-processes. According to the hierarchical model, the concept of attention can be

subdivided into a number of components that include arousal, focused, sustained, selective,

alternating as well as divided forms of attention (Fernandez-Duque & Johnson, 1999).

The arousal form of attention refers to the level of activation and alertness of individuals

that prevails regardless of whether they are energized or tired (Ben, Dellagi, Kebir, & Tabbane,

2009). Focused attention describes the capability of an individual s to focus their attention on a

stimulus. Sustained attention refers to the ability of individual persons to attend to a specific

stimulus or any other activity due to the presence of other disruptive stimuli. The alternating

attention describes the capability of individuals to shift their focus of attention between two or

more stimuli. The divided attention, on the other hand, refers to the ability of an individual to

simultaneously attend to different types of stimuli.

For readers to gain a deeper understanding of how the concept of attention operates as

well its effect on the perception and experience of an individual in the real world, it is important

to keep in mind some essential points on how the attention works. First, it is important to note

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that attention is limited meaning that the number of things that human beings can attend to and

for a specified duration is limited (Gallagher, Werner, Damodaran & Deutsch, 2015).

Researchers have discovered that crucial variables that influence the ability of an individual to

remain focused on a specified task are dependent on the magnitude of their interest in the

stimulus as well as the number of distractors that they experience. Some people practice

multitasking due to the illusion that the concept of attention is limitless in nature. Multitasking

involves the act of performing two or more tasks at the same time.

Researchers have shown that multitasking causes individuals to make numerous

mistakes and perform their assigned tasks at a relatively low pace (Fernandez-Duque & Johnson,

1999). Since attention must be divided amongst the different tasks that an individual seeks to

accomplish, there is high propensity that they are likely to concentrate on a particular task more

than the other is which compromises the quality of the outcome. In multitasking, individuals

must give attention to more than one sources of information simultaneously or perform one task.

For instance, consider a scenario whereby an individual performs different tasks at the same

time, including reading a novel, listening to a podcast and writing an essay (Fernandez-Duque &

Johnson, 1999).

The performance of such tasks at the same time limits the perception of the individual on

the subjects of discussion in each of the three task and at the same time, negatively affects their

performance on the tasks performed (Petersen & Posner, 2012). Common applications of

multitasking in the contemporary world include scenarios where an individual is driving a car

and at the same time tuning a radio or alternatively telephoning. Incidences of driving while

telephoning has been under scrutiny in recent years to a high number of accidents occurrences

associated with this type of multitasking. It is important to note that multitasking rarely performs

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well in real life situation because the attention of individuals performing multiple tasks is

limited.

The second point worth noting is that attention is selective in nature. Since the concept of

attention is largely a limited resource in real life application, an individual must develop the

propensity to become selective on the areas they require focusing on (Fernandez-Duque &

Johnson, 1999). Individuals should focus their attention on a specified item within their existing

environment and at the same time filter out a large number of other items that will most likely

prevent the performance of the task in focus. Thus, individuals must develop the skill to become

selective in tasks they wish to attend (Furman, 2005). The process of selecting tasks occurs so

quickly that individuals do not even take note that they have ignored certain stimuli in favor of

others.

Levine (1990) argues that attention can be likened to the channel selector of the human

brain. Individual must choose from amongst a multitude of stimuli, which specific stimulus that

should give their attention to in order to gain maximum understanding as well as perform

optimally on the selected task (Posner & Petersen, 1990). For instance, consider a scenario where

student inside a classroom may pay attention to what other students are doing, what the teacher is

writing on the board and the color of the new shoes belonging to a fellow student. He may also

divert his attention to a student walking down the hallway or what the teacher is trying to explain

to the class (Lavie, Hirst, De Fockert, & Viding, 2004). From these multiple possibilities, the

student’s brain must make a decision on which one is the most important from moment to

moment and choose to focus on that particular task. It is, however, important to note that even in

the event that the brain concentrates on a specific task, there are selected components of the task

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that are more relevant than others, demanding for more scrutiny by the human brain (Posner,

Snyder & Solso, 2004).

The ability of the human cognitive to identify and focus on the most relevant component

of the task is referred to as the saliency determination. When a certain stimulus is considered

salient by the human brain, there is a high propensity that it is the most outstanding among other

stimuli (Gallagher, Werner, Damodaran & Deutsch, 2015). For instance, consider a situation

where a group of about twenty people dressed in ordinary clothes and hairstyles passed by an

individual standing beside the entrance of the mall. The individual is more likely to no particular

notice of any person within the group. However, if the same group comprised of a single person

who was completely naked and wore a blue hair, then there is a high propensity that the

individual standing beside the mall will most likely remember that particular person.

The outstanding features of the person would remain salient in the mind of the individual.

The portion of the human brain that manages an individual’s ability to select the most relevant or

salient piece of information is referred to as the frontal lobes usually situated just beneath the

forehead (Menon & Uddin, 2010). Scientists have drawn comparisons between the reticular

activating systems (RAS) which is another component of the brain to frontal lobes. While the

RAS acts as the light of the house illuminating everything that the human brain encounters, the

frontal lobes act as the spotlights (Wilschut, Theeuwes & Olivers, 2011). Therefore, while the RAS

gives an individual the mental alertness or energy, the frontal lobes inform the individual about

the location of an object and the duration in which human beings will direct their energy towards

the specified task.

The third point to note about how attention works is that it is a fundamental component

of the cognitive system. Attention is an essential element of the human biology that has ever

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been present starting from birth. The orienting reflexes of individuals enable them to determine

which event within their existing environment that requires attendance, a crucial process that

boosts the human ability to survive. Newborn develop the propensity to attend to different

stimuli that exist around their environment including loud noises. For instance, if the mother

touches the baby against the cheek, the action triggers a rooting reflex that causes the baby to

turn its head to her to receive nourishment (Menon & Uddin, 2010).

The study of attention is critical because it acts as a gateway to cognition and directly

influences the human activities across the whole spectrum (Thapar, Cooper, Jefferies & Stergiakouli,

2011). The study of attention also helps individuals mediate other important variables that

immensely contribute to success in human processes while at the same time influencing their

happiness. The knowledge of attention is highly applicable in studying and learning processes

that emphasize concentrating on the substance of studying among students (Tomlin & Villa,

1994). Attention is the conduit through which the learning process takes place and therefore

makes heavy demands on the processing capacity of the human brain. Further, the achievement

of an understanding of the attention process is important if researchers must identify better

treatment for conditions such as attention deficit or hyperactivity disorder.

Conclusion

Attention is a self-evident concept that human beings encounter in every moment of their

lives. It is the state of awareness that helps further promote the more flexible as well as direct

features individuals’ transaction with the immediate environment. The study of attention reveals

to the readers that the concept is an incredible complexity that can be explained from different

viewpoints including cognitive psychology and the biological processes that it involves. It is,

therefore, unsurprising that readers will ponder over the debate whether a single concept when

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there is different of defining the concept of attention depending on the viewpoint of the

researcher.

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