Health And Safety London Crossrail Project

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Health and Safety: London Crossrail Project

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Health and Safety: London Crossrail Project

Introduction

In most countries across the world, the construction industry is one of the most

significant sectors that promote development and contribution to the gross domestic product. The

construction industry has a strong effect on the safety and health of the workers and the members

of the public. Construction as an industry has both economic and social importance. Construction

consists of a variety of activities that workers perform and each activity has associated risks that

must be assessed and mitigated. Each activity has varying level of risk depending in the method

of construction, the technology used, the kinds of materials used and other factors that determine

the interaction between the workers and the specific activities. The location of the construction

site may also determine the impact of the various activities on the health and safety of the

general public living close to the site. The construction environment is regarded as a high risk

environment due to the high number of unskilled workers present at the site. About seventy

percent of all the workers in a construction are unskilled and this makes it difficult for the entire

contractor to implement a risk management approach that can be followed by all the workers.

The risk framework at a construction site is intertwined in the sense that the worker who carries

out a task is directly exposed to the risks associated with task and also passively exposed to the

risk of the task performed by another worker. The type of the construction project also

determines the level of risks, for example, underground tunnels, tall buildings; bridges among

other structures determine the risk level that should e considered.

As a result of the possible risks, occupational safety and health is an important area that

should be addressed by identifying, managing and eliminating the risks that may put the lives of

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the workers and the members of public in danger. Therefore, the paper herein seeks to look at

risk and risk assessment in a construction site with reference to the London Crossrail

construction project. The paper looks at safety and health risk assessment with a keen interest in

the causes, types, assessment methods and management methods for safety and health risks in

the construction site. The paper gives a review of the important aspects of risk management that

the contractors and the project managers should look at when designing a risk management

strategy for a construction project. The essay also looks at the specific potential risks involved in

the execution of the London Crossrail Project.

Overview of the London Crossrail Project

Crossrail is the largest construction project in Europe and it is expected to open in phases

starting from December 2018. The Crossrail project is expected to deliver one of the fastest and

convenient railway lines that will be called the Elizabeth Line. The Crossrail project is expected

to be completed fully by 2019 December. The project is expected to deliver a one hundred

kilometer plus rail line that will pass through forty railway stations leading from Heathrow to the

west, to Abbey Woods and the east to Shenfield. The rail also passes through a forty-two

kilometer tunnel under central London. The Crossrail Company appointed the Bechtelled team as

the main partner in the delivery of the project using an integrated team management system. The

main focus of this essay is on the 42 kilometer tunnel section which is identified as the area of

risk concentration together with the new subsurface stations (Black and Lawrence, 2005). The

project is mega project that is expected to increase the carrying capacity of the rail to about two

hundred million passengers every year which is a significant ten percent increase in the rail

capacity of central London. The complexity of the project is a major consideration when looking

at the risks associated with the project. The project involves the construction of a tunnel which is

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associated with several health and safety risks that must be identified and addressed to avoid any

kind of loss that may arise from the construction process.

Definition of Risk

There are various definitions of risk in project management which one should consider

first before embarking on analyzing the risk management strategies and approaches.

Understanding the definition of risk forms the basis of identifying, analyzing and mitigating the

risks trough elimination or reduction of the chances of occurrence. Risk can be defined as the

probability or the possibility of a loss or an injury resulting from the activities involved in the

execution of the project. According to the definition of the word risk on the English dictionary, a

risk is defined as a future uncertainty that results from the deviation from the expected results

and outcomes. On the business perspective, risk refers to the amount of uncertainty that an

investor is willing to take so as to meet certain objectives and goals. Project risk on the other side

refers to the uncertain conditions or events that may have a significant effect in the objectives of

the project. Other scholars define risk using simple terms such as the exposure to the chance of

loss or injury which may have a negative effect on the primary objectives of the project.

However, all the definitions have the concept of uncertainty and loss which forms the main

points in defining the concept of risk. Therefore, the paper herein will define risk as any form of

uncertainty that may result from the activities of the project and have an impact on the overall

goals of the project.

There are many forms of risks and they depend on the type of the project, the technology

used and the skills and knowledge of the workers. Risks also arise from different situations

which gives different types of risks. For example, there are liquidity risk, insurance risk, business

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risk, default risk, health and safety risks among other forms of risks. The common characteristic

of all the types of risks is that they are subject to uncertainty and all of them results to a negative

effect on the objectives of the project.

Risk Management Definition

Risk management is the process of managing the risks so that they do not affect the

execution of the project. The latter definition is taken directly from the statement but a

comprehensive definition of risk management can be defined as the systematic process which

entails identifying, analyzing and dealing with the risks. Risk management involves the

identification of the risks involved in a project using the various available methods, analyzing the

possible impact of the risks and responding to the risks. The analysis process should involve

identification of the potential harms, and loss as well as the best ways to deal with the risks. The

response stage should be designed to maximize the possibility for positive results and reduce the

chances of the risks to almost zero value. Project management focuses on minimizing the

possibility and the dire variances of occurrences to the objectives of the project (Abdelgawad and

Fayek, 2010). Risk can be anything ranging from the uncertain time of completion for a new

project activity to the injury of a worker on a construction site. The concept of risk management

is a broad concept but the paper herein focuses only on the health and safety risks on the

construction sites using the London Crossrail project as the case study.

In summary, risk management process involves the identification of the risks, analysis of

the risks, planning for the risks and taking an action to deal with the risk. Therefore, the project

team is charged with the responsibility of identifying the potential risks through a systematic risk

assessment method that is suitable for the particular project. The identified risks are then

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documented and analyzed to find out their direct and indirect effects on the project outcomes

before a contingency plan can be drafted. After the identification and analysis of the risks, a plan

to mitigate the risks is then drafted and implemented by the project management team.

Occupational Health and Safety Hazards

Occupational health and safety risks is one of the main types of risks that must be

considered during the project risk management planning. When looking at risk in relation to the

occupational health and safety, one refers to any potential sources that can result to injury or

adverse health effects on the workers on members of the public. In most cases, the terms risk and

hazard are often used interchangeably but there is a significant difference between the terms

which should determine how they are used to communicate accurately. The following example

gives a clear explanation of the difference between risk and hazard. In a room where there is

water spillage on the floor, the water on the flow is considered as a hazard that can cause the risk

of slipping. In this case, one can understand that hazard refers to the physical factors that are

likely to cause harm and the harm is what is referred to as the risk. Occupational hazards can be

categorized as physical, chemical and psychological hazards which are likely to take place as a

result of the activities involved in the project. The construction industry is one of the industries

with the high chances for occupational hazards (Lingard and Rowlinson, 2005).

Occupational Health and Safety in the Construction Site

The nature of the construction site makes it vulnerable to multiple accidents which are

characterized with working at heights, falling objects, skidding, forklifts, chemical exposure,

dust, noise among other forms of hazards. The nature of the construction sites which is

characterized with constant changes makes it different from other forms of work. The changing

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nature of the site leads to the emergence of different hazards and risks on a daily basis making

the risks faced by the worker vary in types and number. However, every employer is given the

responsibility of maintaining health and safety at the workplace at a construction site. The

natures of the construction project also determine the kinds of risks that should be expected. For

example, in the construction of a bridge, the possible risks include falling into the running water,

collapse of the bridge due to the strong water waves, being caught be crocodiles among other

varying forms of hazards. The high number of unskilled workers at the construction site also

makes it more susceptible to occupational hazards. For instance, the London Crossrail case study

involves underground construction which is also characterized with varying types and forms of

risks that must be considered by the project management team. Therefore, in managing the risk

in any construction project, the nature of the construction project should be taken into

consideration first (Lingard and Rowlinson, 2005).

The Potential Health and Safety Hazards in Tunneling or Underground Construction

The design and construction of tunnels is considered as one of the most complex

challenges engineer face today. The nature of the tunnel based on the geological characteristics

makes it difficult to accurately predict its behavior, a fact that might put the lives of the workers

in great danger. The design constraints which are factors of its use, length, soil, and the

geological conditions make it even harder to identify and define the risks involved in the

construction of tunnels. The risks also depend on the type tunnel being constructed such as the

hardrock tunnel, the soft rock ground tunnels and cover tunnels. The tunneling technique also

determines the types of safety and health hazards that the workers and the members of the public

can be exposed to during the execution of the project.

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In the construction of underground structures, safety is one of the important factors that

must be considered to protect the environment, workers and the members of the public. It is

important to balance both the structural and the environmental needs to create a sustainable

underground tunnel. In the construction of the underground tunnel the risk assessment should not

be limited only to the hazards which may occur during the construction process but also the

possible risks that may occur after completion and during the usage of the tunnel. For example,

the Crossrail project management team involved in the construction of the Elizabeth Line must

take into consideration the human factors such as the workers, the managers and the expected

users of the railway line. Apart from the tunnel, there are other parts of the rail that involve the

construction of overpasses and underpasses within the one hundred kilometer stretch.

Hazard and Risk Assessment in the Crossrail Construction Project

The Crossrail project team prepared a risk assessment and management strategy that

involved the identification of the potential risks, the analysis of the risks and risk evaluation as

well as risk treatment procedures.

Hazard and Risk Identification

The identification of the hazards and the potential receptors was the initial stage of the

risk assessment process and it involved the identification of hazards during the construction and

operation stages of the project. The nature, type and magnitude of each hazard were also

identified and documented. The potential receptors for each hazard were then identified such as

humans, communities and the sensitive environments which may be affected by the identified

hazards.

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Risk Analysis

The process of risk analysis involves identifying the chances of a hazard occur as well as

the frequency of the occurrence. The Crossrail project management team developed risk criteria

enabling the assessment of the potential hazards and the resulting consequences if each hazard or

risk identified was to occur. The risks were then given ratings depending on their likelihood of

occurrence such are unlikely, rare, possible, likely and almost certain. The consequences of each

risk were also rated and grouped into the level of severity each hazard might result in. The

consequences were then rated as insignificant, minor, moderate, major and severe. The

assessment of the risks was done with the assumption that no mitigation measures have been

taking to manage the consequences. The ratings of the risks based on the consequences and the

likelihood gave room for the development of an overall risk rating of all the hazards. The overall

risk ratings acts as a determinant of the level of treatment required to mitigate the risk. The

ratings were given as extreme risks which are those with high risks for people and property. The

extreme risks require significant and urgent management actions to reduce or eliminate the risks.

The next level is the high and medium risk level which required the implementation of a risk

management program to reduce the risk to the most practicable level as possible. The low level

includes the minor risks and requires management to reduce it to as minimal as possible (Phang,

2007).

Hazardous Activities and Events

There many potential hazardous activities that may occur during the project. The

activities can be grouped as those that occur during the construction and those that may occur

during the operation of the project. Various construction activities may lead to various types of

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hazards. Some of the activities that may pose a series of safety hazards include the operation of

vehicles and other construction equipments on site. The risk arising from the operation of

construction equipment is magnified by the small and confined space within the tunnel. Also, the

storage of dangerous and highly flammable goods such as oils and fuels in a compact

construction site makes the site more hazardous in terms of safety and health measures. The use,

transportation of chemicals such as oils, fuels, explosives and other dangerous chemicals also

exposes the workers and the public to varied levels of risks. Transport of soil from the

excavation to the soil placement areas may also be a significant source of safety hazard.

Operating within operational rail environments creates a significant risk to the passengers on the

locomotives as well as the workers on site.

Other than the construction risks, the operations risks were also identified. The operations

risks included the train incidences both above and in the tunnel. Acts of vandalism and terrorism

were also considered as possible operational risks. The risk of wear and tear which may lead to

the collapse or subsidence of the tunnel and other structural components were also given a

consideration. Flooding and inundation from water coming from both the surface and the

underground sources could also result to significant risks.

The Possible Construction Risks

Working at Height

Working at heights in construction works is almost inevitable as at some point the

workers will be required to perform some activities at high heights. For example, in the crossrail

construction project, working at height are common during the fixing of the structures in the

tunnel. Working at heights is one of the most common risks in every construction works and its

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hazards range from falls to falling of objects. According to the data collected on construction

related accidents, injuries resulting from working on heights were the leading with the highest

number of injuries and fatalities. The risk of working at heights increases with the restricted

mobility while working at such heights.

Some of the main activities that may result to risks associated with working at height include

roofing, roofing lights, unprotected edges, slips, failure of access equipment, weather, and falling

materials among others. The roofing in this includes activities such as roofing of the rail stations,

the reinforcement of the roof of the tunnel among others which will require the workers to work

at heights. Since the project is meant to take about four years, accidents may occur resulting from

deterioration of materials. The condition of structures which were erected some time back may

have been affected by weather elements as well as the constant vibration hence affecting their

stability. Unstable structures can be the main cause of collapse and falls which may lead to

varied types of injuries. Unsound materials in a construction site present risks in various ways

which include the danger of the material collapsing when a worker applies his or her weight on

them resulting to a fall through the surface. Another risk is the danger of materials falling off at

a height and hitting people or equipment below them. As they hit the lower structure, the force

may result to a collapse of the whole structure and consequently cause injuries.

Unprotected edges when working at heights also expose workers to significant risks of

falls or falling of objects. Having surfaces whose edges are protected using rails or boundaries

increases the chances of one falling or an object falling from up which may injure people in the

ground or damage other structure below them. The kind of risk applies to the roofs, the elevated

walkways, access platforms and the scaffolding platforms. Unstable or poorly maintained access

equipment such as forklifts, ladders, scaffolding and towers may also result to fallings as one

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works at heights. There are possible risks in using such equipment, especially if they are

unstable, and not properly maintained. Any access equipment that is not positioned correctly,

poorly secured, poorly maintained and poorly constructed will be unstable hence increasing its

chances of failure.

Dealing with Risks Associated With Working at Heights

Dealing with working at height should involve steps aimed at eliminating completely

working at height or reducing the associated risks by implementing the necessary precautions to

protect both the workers and the members of the public. The initial attempt in dealing with

working at height is to try to eliminate them completely or avoid them by assessing all work and

height. Works at height can be achieved by modifying the work process such us assembling the

components on the ground before lifting them. The work can also be modified to involve

welding and erection of most components on the ground then craning them to the required

position instead of performing such operations at heights. However, in most cases in construction

sites working at height cannot be completely avoided and the persons responsible for the project

must consider implementing the appropriate safety precautions.

Some of the precaution measures that should be used to prevent cases of falls and falling

objects include avoiding work at height, carrying out work from a designated place of work and

providing a safe place of work. The safe place of working at height in this case should have

enough space to allow for mobility and secured using guardrails, fences and toeboards. Use of

safety equipments for arresting falls such as safety nets should be provided to reduce the chances

of injuries in case a fall occurs. Proper arrangement of materials away from the edges is also

important to reducing the cases of falls and falling materials. Mechanization of the material

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handling is also an important way of reducing the chances of materials falling from heights. The

latter can be done by the use of equipment such as crane, forklifts and hoists.

Machinery and Moving Objects

All current construction sites whether a small or large project must have a list of

equipments moving around the site. A construction site is considered as an ever changing

environment where hazards continue to increase as the project proceeds since things continue to

expand and rise. A construction site consists of constantly moving objects such as people,

materials, vehicles and equipment such as cranes, hoists, forklifts among others. The risk

increases due to the fact that these equipments are used to lift heavy loads and they also operate

on uneven terrain. The moving objects can lead to serious injuries and even fatalities through

runovers and backovers by tracks, collision between the vehicles or the moving equipment.

Failure of some of the equipments such as cranes and forklifts can lead to falling of objects-on-

load and resulting to serious injuries and destruction of properties at the construction site. For

example, the Crossrail project is expected to make use of various equipments to make work

easier at the site and also to speed up the construction process. Therefore, the contractor is

expected to have a detailed machinery safety manual that must be followed by all the

stakeholders on-site and off-site.

Safety Precautions for Machinery and Moving Objects

Some of the key ways of dealing with machinery safety at the construction site is by

applying all the applicable safety management laws. One, all the non-essential personnel should

be restricted from entering the site. The contractor should also design the construction site to

have controlled entry points to the site and work together with the members of the community to

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control the movement of people within the area. Provision of site regulations and constant

training on site safety to persons at risk is also an important approach of dealing with accidents

resulting from equipments on site. All the required personnel such as flaggers must be on site as

required to help the operator in operating the equipment safely.

Slips, Trips and fall

Construction sites are characterized by uneven terrain having holes, blocks, debris and all

kinds of obstacles. The diverse range of activities going on in the construction site makes it

difficult to predict and makes cases such as slips, trips and falls common accidents observed

among the personnel. The constructions sites consist of holes on the ground, unfinished

foundations, access materials such as ladders, scaffolding and many obstacles that makes

movements quite difficult.

Dealing with risks associated with Slips, Trips and fall

Many workplace injuries and illness are associated with slips, trips and falls. Many

factors increase this risk in the construction site and workers are often predisposed to harm. One

common factor especially in London which compounds this risk is bad weather, for example,

during winter surfaces such as floors, walkways and ground surfaces get slippery which often

become dangerous. Most cases of work absenteeism are often attributed to injuries and illness as

a result of slippery surfaces. Although falls are the most common cause of injuries in the

construction workplace, many other injuries also occur at the ground level others occur when

walking across uneven grounds which are wet, soft or hard. Common injuries include twisted

ankles, knee strains and back injuries. One may even suffer a fractured wrists or muscle tear on a

hard fall (Lipscomb et al, 2006).

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Some factors that contribute to slips, trips and falls hazards as noted by the American

Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) professional safety journal article “slips, trips & falls”

include works, machines, work environment and management. ASSE has suggested some tips

aimed at curbing slips, trips and falls at the workplace. First measure is to ensure proper

illumination of the construction site to spot any potential hazard which might be hidden or not

within the view of the eye (Haslam, 2005).

A proper cleaning procedure is also necessary to good slip resistance. Ensuring that all

walking surface are free of spillages, water and oil and any other substance that may affect the

traction of the surface helps to minimize the risk of slips, trips and falls (Lehtola, 2008).

Workers should be monitor and enlightened that they should wear at all time protective

foot wears with good traction. It is recommended that workers should check their soles of shoes

to see if there are any traces of excessive wear for replacement. In areas which are too slippery,

slip-resistant foot wears with spikes or studs should be worn to improve traction on the ground.

Another effective method is to establish no running policy. Posters can be pinned on the

walls around construction sites warning worker of running around. Making sure that workers do

not run prevent injuries due to slips and falls. Training of the workers at the construction site can

also prove quite useful in abating slips, trips and falls. Workers can be trained on how to

properly clean and remove slips, trips and falls hazards. Reminding the workers to report unsafe

conditions by identifying hazardous materials can also contribute to risk mitigation associated

with slips, trips and falls (Lehtola, 2008).

Noise

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Construction site are often prone to hazardous noise level because of a myriad of

activities been undertaken. Loud noise is dangerous to the ears and hearing and touch can be

direly affected by exposure to too much level of noise and vibration. One of the major risks

associated with excessive noise is permanent damage to hearing which occurs progressively over

time.

Dealing with noise

Controlling construction site noise often prove quite difficult to the constructors, this is

largely due to the mobility of construction work unlike other general industries. Since most

construction works are done outside, they can be affected wind tunnels and weather.

Construction noisemakers include heavy earth moving equipment, welding and hammering of

metals and mixing of ballast and mortars. Heavy noise in the construction sites can be lowered

by using engineering and administrative controls (Fernandez et al, 2009).

One engineering controls is modifying the equipments or work area to make it quieter,

for example substituting existing equipment with quieter equipment. Administrative controls

entail management decisions on work activities to reduce workers exposure to high noise levels.

These decisions may include moving workers away from the noise sources, restricting access to

certain areas and shutting down noisy equipment.

Chemical hazards

Chemical hazards are substances in the workplace that is of health hazards if not properly

handled or stored. Health hazards such as skin irritations, burns and respiratory problems can

have serious effect on the health of workers.

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Dealing with chemical hazards

In bid to control workers exposure to hazardous chemicals such as poisonous gases and

spray, contactors can ensure proper ventilation in the construction sites. Workers should also

wear protective gears as specified in the task-specific safe work procedures. This aims to prevent

contamination or contact with deadly chemicals.

Risk assessment

Risk assessment entails identification of the potential risks or hazards associated with an

activity, task or process and putting the right controls in place to mitigate the risk or reduce it. It

involves systematically breaking down activities into separate components and identifying all the

risks associated with each component (Zavadskas et al, 2010). Assessment of the level of the risk

is done once the risk is identified then determination of its priority is carried out. After analysis

of the level of the risk and its priority, controls are set in place to eliminate or reduce the risk

thereafter.

Activities or processes with higher level of risks are given a higher priority and they may

require more complex controls in place. Sometimes totally elimination of the risk may be

impossible, and the degree of the risk that remains after the implementation of the control

procedures in place is known as residual risk. If the assessment of the risk ascertains that the

residual risk is still high, the activity may be together abandoned or other controls may be set in

place to reduce it further.

Competences of risk assessors

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Suitable and sufficient risk assessment can be done if the risk assessment procedure is

undertaken by more than one qualified person. This enables different view and perspective since

you are better able to identify all the risks and more input is made in determining the control

procedures. A risk assessor is tasked with on-site investigations to determine the existence and

degree of risk or hazards. He or she is a certified individual who produces reports explaining the

result of the investigation and possible ways of mitigating the risks or hazards.

London Cross rail Project risk assessment was done with a team of qualified risk

assessors whose experience in this area spans more than five years. They have experience of

more than five years in on-site construction investigation and environmental remediation work.

They are certified engineers and registered architects with certification in environmental field.

Methods used to identify hazards

Work place hazards can cause health and safety risk and even harm if not identified

earlier. These hazards need to be identified by conducting a risk assessment in the construction

sites. The methods used to identify these hazards include hazard survey of the work place to spot

potential hazards; a job-hazard analysis aimed at identifying specific job hazards, investigation

of accidents to determine their causes and regular workplace inspection.

The strength of these methods of identifying hazards lies in their ability to determine if

all the potential existing hazards have been eliminated or controlled. Regular work inspection

helps spot hazards before they inflict injuries on the workers and investigation of accidents helps

to prevent further accidents by determining their root cause. However, one major limitation of all

these method is their inability to totally eliminate hazards in the work place since accidents and

Health and safety 19

other risks in the work place sometimes seem unavoidable. Some methods may not fully control

hazards for example investigation of accident after it has occurred.

Methods of risk evaluation

Risk evaluation is done to ascertain the level of risk and their significance (Choi and Seo,

2004). This may also include analysis of their consequences and their likelihood of occurrence.

The two methods used in risk evaluation include qualitative risk analysis and quantitative

risk analysis. Qualitative risk analysis involved identifying the apparent risks, their description

and consequences during the project while quantitative risk analysis involved analysis of the

probability of the project risk occurrence and the overall impact on the project objective. The

likelihood of the occurrence of the risk was classified as rare, unlikely, possible, likely and

almost certain. The consequences of the risk can be grouped as insignificant, minor, moderate,

major or catastrophic

Qualitative risk analysis uses probability to rate the impact of the risk which makes it

possible to quickly prioritize and rank risks identified while quantitative risk analysis although

more time consuming provides enough data for decision making in establishing controls. One

limitation of qualitative risk analysis is the rigorous computation of the numerical value of risk

which may be quite inaccurate since it involves many assumptions.

Hierarchy of Controls

Once risk rating is done using the qualitative risk analysis method then ascertainment of

the appropriate actions and priority made. This involves the use of strategies or the actions to

eliminate the risks or reduce them. The process of reducing risk is done in accordance with the

Health and safety 20

hierarchy of control. First we eliminate the hazard which is the best method of controlling the

risk. Substitution is then done to replace something deemed to be risky with another one less

risky, for example substituting a hazardous substance with a less hazardous one. The work place

can also be redesigned to make it safe for example through paving to prevent slips, trips and

falls.

Sometimes isolation of the worker from the hazard can be done to prevent them from

being predisposed to the risks. Use of guards and partitioning is recommended. Administrative

guidelines and policies can be implemented in the work place to guide people into working

safely. Lastly wearing of protective gears in the work place can be used as a control especially in

regard to chemical hazards.

Conclusions and Recommendations

In regard to the potential health and safety risk that workers are predisposed to in London

cross rail construction project there is need to conduct to a thorough risk assessment geared

towards mitigating the foreseeable risks and giving a proper risk treatment to mitigate them to

ensure the safety of the workers. A holistic risk management strategy to effectively deal with the

risk is also pertinent in the construction sites. In the light of the above risk assessment procedures

and risk management strategy in a bid to curb potential construction site risk, contractors at

Cross rail Construction Project have taken an initiative to help prevent these risk by implement

both engineering and administrative control procedures.

After identification of the appropriate control procedures to undertake in a bid to reduce

or eliminate risk, there is need to implement them and further training and guidelines is also

required to aid the implementation process.

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The constructor of London Cross rail Project can improve their risk assessment and risk

management procedure by regularly reviewing their risk assessment steps since construction

sites rarely remain the same. Integration of the risk in decision making can also be done to track

project compliance with set standard control frameworks by bodies such as American Society of

Safety Engineers (ASSE).

Health and safety 22

References

Abdelgawad, M. and Fayek, A.R., 2010. Risk management in the construction industry using

combined fuzzy FMEA and fuzzy AHP. Journal of Construction Engineering and

Management, 136(9), pp.1028-1036.

Black, M., Dodge, C. and Lawrence, U. eds., 2015. Crossrail Project: Infrastructure design and

construction. ICE Publishing.

Fernández, M.D., Quintana, S., Chavarría, N. and Ballesteros, J.A., 2009. Noise exposure of

workers of the construction sector. Applied Acoustics, 70(5), pp.753-760.

Haslam, R.A., Hide, S.A., Gibb, A.G., Gyi, D.E., Pavitt, T., Atkinson, S. and Duff, A.R., 2005.

Contributing factors in construction accidents. Applied ergonomics, 36(4), pp.401-415.

Lehtola, M.M., van der Molen, H.F., Lappalainen, J., Hoonakker, P.L., Hsiao, H., Haslam, R.A.,

Hale, A.R. and Verbeek, J.H., 2008. The effectiveness of interventions for preventing

injuries in the construction industry: a systematic review. American journal of preventive

medicine, 35(1), pp.77-85.

Lingard, H. and Rowlinson, S.M., 2005. Occupational health and safety in construction project

management. Taylor & Francis.

Lipscomb, H.J., Glazner, J.E., Bondy, J., Guarini, K. and Lezotte, D., 2006. Injuries from slips

and trips in construction. Applied ergonomics, 37(3), pp.267-274.

Phang, S.Y., 2007. Urban rail transit PPPs: Survey and risk assessment of recent

strategies. Transport Policy, 14(3), pp.214-231.

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Zavadskas, E. K., Turskis, Z., & Tamošaitiene, J. (2010). Risk assessment of construction

projects. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 16(1), 33-46.

doi:10.3846/jcem.2010.03

Choi, H.H., Cho, H.N. and Seo, J.W., 2004. Risk assessment methodology for underground

construction projects. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 130(2),

pp.258-272.

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