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Mass Incarceration

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MASS INCARCERATION 2

Mass Incarceration

Topic: the impact of mass incarceration on the Black community

Introduction

Over the last three decades, the United States has implemented a crime control and

sentencing policy that has increased the population of prisoners. According to Wagner & Sawyer

(2018) from the Prison Policy Initiative, there are approximately 2.3 million Americans held in

different prisons spread across the nation. The Federal Bureau of Investigations (2018) reports

that the black community account for approximately 38% of the total prison population despite

the fact that blacks account for only 13.4% of the population (United States Census Bureau,

2018). The current imprisonment rate is almost five times higher than the imprisonment rate in

the 1970s. In addition, the growth in number of prisoners, especially the number of persons of

color cannot be compared to other western industrialized nations. The increase in number of

prisoners has not resulted due to changes in criminality but resulted due to changes in crime law

and policies, such as the war on drugs. From the above statistics, it is evident that mass

incarceration has excessively affected the lives of blacks. The result of this is that the black

community has disproportionately been burdened by the economic and social costs of these

harsh crime policies.

Literature Review

The mass incarceration of the black community is a social issue that has not been given

much consideration. The society disregards this issue because it is a social issue that does not

affect a majority of the population. According to Western & Muller (2013), there is a 35%

chance for a black man with no college education to serve a prison term currently; this is

different from the 12% chance in the 1970s. The study by Western & Muller divided the effects

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of mass incarceration on the black community into four broad areas including: social and

economic effects, recidivism and crime, external effects on family members and cultural effects.

One of the issues that is not openly discussed in the American criminal justice system is

the effect of economic capacity of a community on the working of a court. According to

Rodriguez (2013) the economic capacity of an individual or community has an effect on some of

the decisions of a court. There are different youth and family-related factors and the locations

where individuals and communities reside (disadvantaged, inner-city and low-cost

neighborhoods) which influence court officials. Western & Muller (2013) examine different

studies and hypotheses on the effects of incarceration on job prospects on ex-prisoners. From

their perspective, the leading hypothesis asserts that job seekers coming out of prison perform

poorly. The reason for this is that employers have some form of aversion to hiring persons with

previous criminal record. Furthermore, the prison experience may have undermined the social

and interpersonal skills or the social contacts that are needed to secure employment (Western &

Muller, 2013). It is important that the society changes its attitudes and perceptions about ex-

prisoners in order to ensure that such people are accorded the opportunity to secure gainful

employment (Rodriguez, 2013).

The second effect of mass incarceration on the black community is on crime. One of the

theories that have been advanced in this regard is that prison is that prison life is criminogenic –

that is it is crime causing. This is by promoting criminal behaviors and integrating inmates into a

strong influence and network of offenders. The other way is that prison life causes labeling and

stigmatization that limits prisoners from legitimate opportunities that they can use to advance

their social and economic wellbeing (Western & Muller, 2013). The other theory of crime is that

prison life reduces the crime rate through deterrence and incapacitation. Deterrence is the general

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divergence of people’s thoughts on crime through the threat of punishment while incapacitation

is the avoidance of crime by locking up specific people who would have caused offense.

Incapacitation is seen to have a larger effect than deterrence meaning that the drop in crime from

incapacitation can improve the quality of life of black people and the communities in which they

live in (Western & Muller, 2013).

The other effect of mass incarceration is the external effect on family members. From the

above statistics it is seen that blacks are disproportionately affected by incarceration. Having a

parent in prison can have significant negative effects on a child. Apart from this, having an

incarcerated parent can be a source of learning obstacles, can reduce the quality of interpersonal

relationships that a student develops and be a source of health challenges (Morsy & Rothstein,

2016). According to Ewert, Sykes & Pettit (2014) the years of incarceration contribute to racial

inequalities in educational attainment. In addition, mass incarceration of parents leads to

psychological trauma to the children (Morsy & Rothstein, 2016). The effect of this is a cyclical

problem of poverty in which children of incarcerated parents are not able to adequately measure

up to the educational standards. Some of them end up dropping school thereby engaging in

violent and criminal activities which may make them become incarcerated (Morsy & Rothstein,

2016). According to Morsy & Rothstein (2016), the prison experience itself has an effect of

reducing the educational attainment of the prisoners. This when coupled with the little

employment experience and the fact that they job applications are considered with some form of

aversion from the employers results in a situation where the incarcerated persons are continually

held in prison because of continuous engagement in crime.

The other effect on family members is that black incarceration increases the educational

attainment of black females while lowering the rates of black teenage pregnancy (Mechoulan,

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2011). This is a result of a study that was performed by Mechoulan. Mechoulan uses data from

the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Current Population Survey in which he discovers that

there is an unfavorable sex ratio between black males and females. Mass incarceration induces a

shortage of black men with the implication of fewer sexual relations for the women thereby

reducing the chances of teenage pregnancy. The overall effect of this is that relatively more black

women are allowed to continue with their studies and contribute to national development

(Mechounal, 2011).

The other effect of incarceration on the black community is on health. Schnittker,

Massoglia & Uggen (2011) performed a study in which they evaluated the effects of

incarceration on the health of the African American community. The authors begin the article by

stating that the rates of incarceration have increased tremendously since the 1970s. This has

disproportionately affected African American men. Mass incarceration has negative effects on

the health of inmates as they have reported increased levels of chronic illnesses for different

conditions. Some of the common ailments include tuberculosis, hepatitis C, HIV/AIDS, diabetes,

asthma and hypertension among other conditions (Schnittker, Massoglia & Uggen, 2011). When

the healthcare system in the prisons is evaluated and compared to the system outside the prisons

it is seen that incarcerated persons receive generally low quality care. However, majority of the

black people were already receiving this low quality of care before they entered the prison

system because of their low income. In addition, Schnittker, Massoglia & Uggen (2011) reports

that a significant proportion of the black community resumes care while in prison especially if

such care had been stopped due to non-availability of funds and resources. There are medical

tests and exams that are performed on the prisoner showing that the healthcare system within the

prison is somehow working to the advantage of the mass incarcerated persons. However, this is

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not a reason to celebrate. One of the concerns that have been raised is the spread of infectious

diseases in prisons.

He and colleagues performed a study in which they sought to determine the strategies that

can be used to prevent the spread of hepatitis C in American prisons. The authors state that

hepatitis C may become a major burden to the society is sufficient screening is not performed

and the infected prisoners are allowed back to the society. However, at the moment,

approximately three-quarters of American prisons do not offer any form of hepatitis C screening

to inmates. The effect of this is missing on potential targets or patients. The rights of such

patients are hereby infringed upon because they are not offered the needed medical care despite

the fact that diagnosis has been performed. One of the issues that is often considered is that

treatment is expensive and yet prisons have limited expenses that cannot cater for all the

treatment and health needs of the patients (He et al., 2016).

The other health concern for mass incarcerated inmates is that a significant proportion of

inmates held in American prisons have a substance use disorder (Lyons & Cantrell, 2015). The

conflict theory of crime can be used to explain how the criminal justice system responds to crime

in the society. Through this theory, it is seen that the response has excluded some racial groups

in the society. The reason for this is that the criminal justice system is a means of social control

that serves the needs and interests of the powerful members of the society (Lyons & Cantrell,

2015). There are different drug and alcohol treatment interventions that have been offered in

prisons. However, due to the limited budget, these interventions are not able to solve the

substance use problems among inmates. The effect of this is that many inmates smuggle drugs

and substances in prisons with the result of introducing other people who were not consuming

these drugs and substances to the vice.

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The other effect of incarceration is on cultural effect of incarceration and the legitimacy

of crime-control authorities. The issue of incarceration may broadly affect the perception of life

and marriage. There has been interest to study the effect of incarceration on the social

institutions, such as family and employment. The theory in this case is that persons who have

been subjected to incarceration are likely to reject authorities and social institutions (Western &

Muller, 2013). According to Anderson (2014) reporting for the Pew Research, there is a

significant proportion of blacks that consider the criminal justice system to be unfair. Hetey &

Eberhardt (2018) advance this argument by stating that there are racial disparities that are

experienced in different cities across the United States. This can be seen in the routine police

stops and mass incarceration of inmates. The authors analyzed pedestrian and traffic stops in

Oakland California and discovered that 60% of the stops involved African Americans. Once they

are stopped, the African Americans are likely to be handcuffed, searched and arrested. It is

important to note that for a majority of blacks the beliefs about the unfairness in the criminal

justice system is associated mainly with segregation and discrimination that is experienced in the

general American society. Black people are therefore likely to view police actions as racially

tinged because they have been heavily socialized to racial discrimination (Western & Muller,

2013). This is the reason why the blacks rebel against the social institutions. The effect of this is

that many blacks are likely to engage in protests and violence against these social institutions

thereby making them become candidates for imprisonment.

The literature review has shown the effects of mass incarceration on the black

community. From this review it is seen that incarceration reduces the life opportunities for the

black community thereby exposing some members to a cycle of poverty. The next section is the

methodology section that will discuss how the study will be conducted.

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Methodology

A mixed level study will be used for this research. Data for this study will be obtained

from different government agencies including Census Bureau, Bureau of Labor Statistics,

Department of Education, Prison Policy Institute and the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The Census

Bureau will provide data on the proportion of the different races in America; Bureau of Labor

Statistics will provide data on number of black people in the labor market; Department of

Education will provide data on achievement and education gap; Federal Bureau of Prisons will

provide data on the number of inmates and their races.

The other study will be obtained from a national representative sample of 10,000 youths

aged between 16 and 30 years. The youths will be informed of the objectives of the study and an

informed consent to participate in the study will be sought. Data from participants will be

obtained from online surveys conducted through Survey Monkey.

The dependent variable that will be used for the study is mass incarceration. The study

will use a binary variable that will evaluate whether the participant has been incarcerated at some

point before they were 21 years. The mathematical model that will be used for the study is as

follows:

Mass incarceration = µ

+ µ

Ability + µ

Mental_health + µ

Family_Effects + µ

Criminal_Behavior + µ

Demographics + µ

Incarceration + β

This model is almost similar to a model that was deployed by Hjalmarsson (2008) while

evaluating criminal justice involvement and high school completion.

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Ability

Participants will be tested on different areas including mathematic and arithmetic

reasoning, paragraph comprehension and word knowledge. They will be collated and results

compared to the previous performance of the participant in the recent exams.

Mental health

A survey question will be administered on the participant’s parent (for young

participants) and on the participants. The questions will focus on any emotional, physical or

mental conditions that may limit the ability of the participant. The questions will also seek to

understand whether the participant engages in substance abuse and has any substance abuse

disorders.

Household effects

The purpose of this will be to seek to understand whether the participants’ parents have a

stable relationship. It will also seek to understand whether one of the parents have ever been

incarcerated and the effect that this has had on the participant.

Criminal behavior

This will be a self-report to understand whether participants have ever engaged in any

form of criminal activity, such as theft, destruction of property and sale of illegal drugs among

other criminal activities.

Demographics

This will help obtain demographic variables such as age, gender and perceived social

status.

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Incarceration

This will seek to understand whether the participant has been incarcerated or not.

Incarceration is different from arrest or conviction and is defined as the detainment of an

individual in a jail, prison or any other correctional facility (Hjalmarsson, 2008).

Analysis

SPSS will be used for analyzing the primary data obtained from the participants. As has

been mentioned, this primary data will be compared to the secondary data obtained from the

agencies. It is expected that persons who do not have a college degree or who have a low level of

educational attainment are likely to have unstable relationships in their households, engage in

drug and substance abuse and may have been incarcerated at some point in their lives. This is a

cause of concern for the different government authorities and agencies to develop strategies that

can reduce the cyclic poverty that is associated with jailed persons.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study is to determine the impact of mass incarceration on the Black

community. From the literature review it is seen that the black community is disproportionately

represented in the criminal justice system. Some of the effects of incarceration on the black

community include social and economic effects, recidivism and crime, external effects on family

members and cultural effects. From these effects it is seen that if changes are not made to the

criminal justice system then the blacks will continue to suffer from cyclic poverty and low

attainment in education. The mixed method of research that has been proposed for the study will

help analyze these effects on members of the black community. The dependent variable for the

study is mass incarceration and the study will seek to determine how this affects the other

variables that have been included. One of the concerns that can be raised about the study is the

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potential of bias since it is based on self-reports by participants. However, this will be corrected

by comparing the results of the study to the secondary data. This study will contribute to the

body of literature in this field as it will provide an understanding of the different ways in which

mass incarceration affects the black community. Policymakers can use the results of this study to

design programs and policies aimed at reducing mass incarceration and also helping in

readmitting former inmates into the society.

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References

Anderson, M. (2014 August 12). Vast majority of blacks view the criminal justice system as

unfair. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/08/12/vast-majority-

of-blacks-view-the-criminal-justice-system-as-unfair/

Ewert, S., Sykes, B.L., & Pettit, B. (2014). The degree of disadvantage: Incarceration and

inequality in education. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social

Science, 651(1), 24-43. doi: 10.1177/0002716213503100

Federal Bureau of Prisons. (2018 October 27). Inmate Race. Retrieved from

https://www.bop.gov/about/statistics/statistics_inmate_race.jsp

He, T., Li, K., Roberts, M.S., Spaulding, A.C., Ayer, T., Grefenstette, J.J., & Chhatwal, J.

(2016). Prevention of hepatitis C by screening and treatment in U.S. prisons. Annals of

Internal Medicine, 164(2), 84-93. doi: 10.7326/M15-0617

Hetey, R.C., & Eberhardt, J.L. (2018). The numbers don’t speak for themselves: Racial

disparities and the persistence of inequality in the criminal justice system. Current

Directions in Psychological Science, 27(3), 183-187. doi: 10.1177/0963721418763931

Hetey, R. C., Monin, B., Maitreyi, A., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2016). Data for change: A statistical

analysis of police stops, searches, handcuffings, and arrests in Oakland, Calif., 2013-

2014. Stanford SPARQ. Retrieved from https://stan ford.app.box.com/v/Data-for-Change

Hjalmarsson, R. (2008). Criminal justice involvement and high school completion. Journal of

Urban Economics 63(2), 613-30.

Lyons, T., & Cantrell, W.D. (2015). Prison meditation movement and mass incarceration.

International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 60(12), 1363-

1375. doi: 10.1177/0306624X15583807

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Mechoulan, S. (2011). The external effects of black male incarceration on black females. Journal

of Labor Economics, 29(1), 1-35.

Morsy, L., & Rothstein, R. (2016). Mass incarceration and children’s outcomes: Criminal justice

policy in education policy. Economic Policy Institute, 1-23.

Rodriguez, N. (2013). Concentrated disadvantage and the incarceration of youth: Examining how

context affects juvenile justice. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(2),

189-215. doi: 10.1177/0022427811425538

Schnittker, J., Massoglia, M., & Uggen, C. (2011). Incarceration and the health of African

American community. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8(1), 133-141.

doi: 10.1017/S1742058X11000026

United States Census Bureau. (2018). Quick Facts. Retrieved from

https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045217

Wagner, P., & Sawyer, W. (2018 March 14). Mass incarceration: The whole pie 2018. Retrieved

from https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2018.html

Western, B., & Muller, C. (2013). Mass incarceration, macrosociology, and the poor. Annals of

the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 647(1), 166-189. doi:

10.1177/0002716213475421

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