Posse Comitatus Act

Posse Comitatus Act 1

POSSE COMITATUS ACT

Name

Course

Date

Posse Comitatus Act 2

Introduction

Background information

The Posse Comitatus Act is a United States federal law which was signed in the year

1978 on June 18.

The act was signed by the then president Rutherford B. Hayes. The main

purpose of this act is to limit federal government’s power and ability to utilize federal troops to

perform law enforcement operations. Posse Comitatus act was designed to be in concert with the

Insurrection Act of 1807.

The act uses federal military personnel so that it can enforce the

domestic policies in the United States. Posse Comitatus act was passed by the respective

authority as an amendment to an army appropriation. This was done following the end of

reconstruction in the United States and it was subsequently updated twice in the years 1956 and

1981. This act during its creation was heavily influenced by the southern states. The bill was

introduced by Congressmen J. Proctor Knott (D-Ky) and it states,

From and after the passage of this act it shall not be lawful to employ any part of the Army of the

United States as a posse comitatus, or otherwise, for the purpose of executing the laws, except in

such cases and under such circumstances as such employment of said force may be expressly

authorized by the Constitution or by act of Congress; no money appropriated by this act shall be

used to pay any of the expenses incurred in the employment of any troops in violation of this

section and any person willfully violating the provisions of this section shall be deemed guilty of

Baker, Bonnie. "The origins of the posse comitatus." Air and Space Power Chronicles 1 (1999).

Ibid., 1

Posse Comitatus Act 3

a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be punished by fine not exceeding ten thousand

dollars or imprisonment not exceeding two years, or by both such fine and imprisonment.

This act applies to the United States Army specifically. It was amended in the year 1956

to include United States Air force.

The act does not specify about the United States Marine

Corps and the United States Navy.

However the Navy has ensured it has prescribed regulations

which to some point construed to give this act more force with the respect to the services stated.

The Air National Guard and the Army National Guard are not under this act.

Both the Air

National Guard and the Army National Guard are under the state’s jurisdiction. As such, they fall

under the governor. In this sense, both guards can be used as law enforcers when the situation

arises such as during disasters or crisis.

Nature of the Problem

Recently, there have been numerous acts of terrorism affecting many countries

worldwide. In the United States, the 9/11 showed how the citizens of a country can suffer if

terrorism in a country is not regulated or rather, stopped.

The Posse Comitatus Act has become a

source of debate in among the public and members of the homeland security. Different groups

have emerged with ideas about this act especially concerning its hindrance to the work of

homeland security. In response to this debate, other individuals have called for it to be

interpreted differently so that it can help keep the people in the country safe from terrorism. The

Baker, Bonnie. "The origins of the posse comitatus." Air and Space Power Chronicles 1 (1999).

Bea, Keith. "Federal Stafford Act Disaster Assistance: Presidential Declarations, Eligible Activities, and Funding."

library of congress washington dc congressional research service, 2010.

Elsea, Jennifer K. "The use of federal troops for disaster assistance: Legal issues." library of congress washington

dc congressional research service, 2006.

Kealy, Sean J. "Reexamining the Posse Comitatus Act: Toward a Right to Civil Law Enforcement." Yale Law &

Policy Review 21, no. 2 (2015):

Ibid., 1.

Posse Comitatus Act 4

act touches on internal affairs but does not involve the homeland security which is responsible

for handling all the internal security affairs of the country.

A resolution will help the homeland

determine the extent to which they will carry out their activities as well as the areas which they

are not supposed to handle. It will also give the homeland security an estimation of the work they

have if a terrorism activity happens in the country. Given the current threat environment and

recent terrorist attacks on our homeland and abroad, the Posse Comitatus Act needs to be revised

to allow more flexibility in the use of active military forces in defense of the homeland and

response to natural or manmade disasters.

Lack of information from Homeland Security

1. Lack of the recent terrorism activity reports in the United States

2. Inadequate information about the powers of Homeland Security

3. Inadequate information about the extent of Posse Comitatus Act influence on Homeland

Security

The Posse Comitatus and Civil Support

There has been an increased expectation from the federal government to protect the

citizens from any man-made disasters if need arise. After the events of Hurricane Katrina and

9/11, the American people expect that the federal government can ascertain their safety as well

as prevent or rather mitigate such situations should it ever prevail on American soil.

It has come

to the lime light that Americans are wary of the central government when it comes to giving

Bea, Keith. "Federal Stafford Act Disaster Assistance: Presidential Declarations, Eligible Activities, and Funding."

library of congress washington dc congressional research service, 2010.

Nevitt, Mark. "Unintended Consequences: The Posse Comitatus Act in the Modern Era." (2014).

Posse Comitatus Act 5

them power. The American civil community and civic culture is squeamish when empowering

the federal government.

The United States has found it difficult to find the balance between

freedom of the people and security. The act has caused confusion among the people regarding

the extent in which the military should help the people. Additionally, people do not understand

under what circumstance does the federal military come to help the people.

In the United States, it is not an alien sight to see federal military forces in areas struck by

disaster assisting people including search and rescue for the civilians. They also provide security

for national events when requested and approved by the relevant administration.

However,

where the issue of federal military comes into question is in the area of law enforcement.

This

is the area which Homeland Security is designed to help. The Posse Comitatus Act prohibits the

Air Force and the US Army from conducting these traditional duties.

The enforcement of

duties for instance arrest, investigations, use of intelligence on operations regarding citizens of a

country, and seizure has always lied solely with the department of Homeland Security. These are

the duties which are termed as active military support to the enforcement of law. This is frowned

upon by the people as well as illegal when it comes to the law. Conversely, it is identified as

being violations of civil rights on the population. Nonetheless, it can be noted the military can

aid in law enforcement in a passive role. This can include training law enforcers as well as the

public in matters regarding disasters or terrorism prevention, allowing military base to be used

Nevitt, Mark. "Unintended Consequences: The Posse Comitatus Act in the Modern Era." (2014).

Ibid., 54.

Bea, Keith. "Federal Stafford Act Disaster Assistance: Presidential Declarations, Eligible Activities, and

Funding." library of congress Washington dc congressional research service, 2010.

Baker, Bonnie. "The origins of the posse comitatus." Air and Space Power Chronicles 1 (1999).

Posse Comitatus Act 6

for training, sharing military equipment and sharing information with other law enforcers to

assist in making the country safe.

The Posse Comitatus Act has a way that it can be bypassed through the use of the

Stafford Act.

This Act allows the president to use the federal aid in assisting the people who

have been hit hardly by natural disasters and man-made disasters. The president can use military

to provide services such as removal of debris, medical care, as well as distribution of food and

water. Situations involving tornadoes, hurricanes, and floods are where the president can allow

the military to take part in helping the citizens. The problem arises when there is rioting and

looting during such events. One of the questions that arise is what the federal military role in

such a situation is. For instance, if the law enforcements are not adequate or they have been

overwhelmed, the role of the military in this case is not defined. The Stafford Act fails to give

the president the power to make the federal military to become law enforcers. It does not allow

the military to practice these powers.

The authorization for the federal military to participate in such an activity must come

from elsewhere. Before the department of defense can assist or take its force to help the people,

request for assistance must be made by the state or local government.

The department of

defense does not have the authority to order its members or rather its force to provide relief. The

Elsea, Jennifer K. "The use of federal troops for disaster assistance: Legal issues." library of congress washington

dc congressional research service, 2006.

Baker, Bonnie. "The origins of the posse comitatus." Air and Space Power Chronicles 1 (1999).

Tighe, Scott, and William Brown. "The Militarization of Law Enforcement: Bypassing the Posse Comitatus Act."

(2015).

Weston, Mark C. Review of the Posse Comitatus Act After Hurricane Katrina. ARMY WAR COLL CARLISLE

BARRACKS PA, 2006.

Posse Comitatus Act 7

department has first to wait for confirmation from the Immediate Response Authority. The

timeframe and the amount of support that the military should provide are limited by the

Immediate Response Authority.

In spite of all the legal authorities and regulations that have

been outlined, the proper use of the military still lingers. A misunderstanding of and uncertainty

by the local civilian leaders, military forces, and civilian population still do not understand to

what extent these individuals should help. The good examples of how the federal military have

been ineffective in helping the citizens are exemplified by the Hurricane Katrina, The La Riots,

and the Branch Davidian Complex incidents. As such, the act needs to be flexible in such a way

that it can allow the federal military to help homeland security especially in minimizing terrorism

which is currently the biggest threat in the world.

Case studies

Posse Comitatus Act has outlived its function in the United States as an act which

protected its people. Currently, the act has become a big hindrance in Homeland security. Since

the nineteenth century, the law has become a limitation on the use of military forces to help the

citizens or maintain law and order in situations which have overwhelmed the law enforcers.

Many people have continued to suffer as a result of the reluctance of the military to help calm the

situation. For instance, if countries such as in Europe allowed the military to police the streets,

most of the attacks ongoing in the country would not exist. The same case has happened in the

United States. The lawmakers should consider the state of the current world and understand that

Elsea, Jennifer K. "The use of federal troops for disaster assistance: Legal issues." library of congress washington

dc congressional research service, 2006.

Kealy, Sean J. "Reexamining the Posse Comitatus Act: Toward a Right to Civil Law Enforcement." Yale Law &

Policy Review 21, no. 2 (2015): 3.

Posse Comitatus Act 8

the military are essential in keeping peace. To bring these into perspective, three cases will be

used to analyze the effect of military on homeland security. These three case studies are The

Branch Davidian Complex incident, the LA riots, and the Hurricane Katrina.

The Los Angeles Riots

In the year 1992 on 29

April, racial riots broke out in Los Angeles especially the South

Central section.

The riots happened after the police were seen beating Rodney King and were

acquitted of the charges later. After that trial, the people shortly saw a man again being pulled

out of his truck and beaten mercilessly. The person was nearly beat to death. These actions

motivated the people in this area to riot in protest to what they felt was unfair treatment. The

racially motivated rioters engaged in vandalism in the area as well as using fire to torch many

properties. As a result of this riots, the ensuing days saw more than 2000 people being injured

and a further 54 individuals dying.

The law enforcers that were involved in controlling this situation were LAPD. However,

they could not contain the riots and they were later overwhelmed. This led to them requesting

help from the California Army National Guard (CAARNG).

As noted earlier, the National

Guard Army was a state military and as such, it is not under the PCA. Therefore, this force could

assist the LAPD forces in the South Central Los Angeles. The state military responded with

about 2,000 guard troops. This force is composed of reserve force and some other individuals

Hall, Abigail R., and Christopher J. Coyne. "The militarization of US domestic policing." The Independent Review

17, no. 4 (2013): 485-504.

Haynes, John T., and Linda C. Rodriguez. "EMERGENCY, EMERGENCY!: Local Emergency Manager

Perspectives On Partnerships With Defense Services For Emergencies." In Proceedings of the International

Association for Business and Society, vol. 27, pp. 72-81. 2016.

Baker, Bonnie. "The origins of the posse comitatus." Air and Space Power Chronicles 1 (1999).

Posse Comitatus Act 9

who hold regular civilian jobs and. Once ordered, they took time to assemble which further

worsened the situation. The CAARNG and the LAPD made progress in the first few days but the

riots were still too much for them to handle and they continued to struggle. At the moment, the

leaders had already alerted the federal military forces to be ready in the nearby Ft. Ord and Camp

Pendleton.

With the violence still continuing in the Area, the Mayor and Governor requested for help

especially federal assistance to deal with the rioting individuals. On that same day, there were

more than 4,000 marines and soldiers deployed in this same area. The then president, Bush

deployed these forces not by using the Insurrection Act but by using the authority for a president

described in USC Title 10, section 333. This section states that,

The President may employ the armed forces, including the National Guard in Federal service,

to – (A) restore public order and enforce the laws of the United States when, as a result of a

natural disaster, epidemic, or other serious public health emergency, terrorist attack or

incident, or other condition in any State or possession of the United States, the President

determines that - (i) domestic 18 violence has occurred to such an extent that the constituted

authorities of the State or possession are incapable of maintaining public order.

This case showed that the federal forces could still participate in law enforcement.

However, most of the local authorities were still appalled at this development and did not

understand why the federal military were participating in keeping law and order within the

Haynes, John T., and Linda C. Rodriguez. "EMERGENCY, EMERGENCY!: Local Emergency Manager

Perspectives On Partnerships With Defense Services For Emergencies." In Proceedings of the International

Association for Business and Society, vol. 27, pp. 72-81. 2016.

Baker, Natalie D. "“Making it Worse than What really Happened”: social chaos and Preparedness as Problematic

Mythologies in Disaster communication." Frontiers in Communication 1 (2016): 2.

Posse Comitatus Act 10

country. However, it can be noted that the federal military did not participate in the action.

Military lawyers had warned them against participating in order to avoid contravening the PCA

acts.

This is a clear case of how the PCA act is ineffective in helping homeland security. The

riots of 1992 would have been ended a long time ago if the military were used.

However, it had

to drag along as the different group pondered what action should be taken. The resulting case

was the death of many innocent lives. There could have been few injuries and probably loss of

properties if the federal military would have intervened. The act acted against its own people and

the protection of both the citizens and the law enforcers. In this instance, the federal military

were deployed to the region but failed to participate. They only worsened the situation for the

law enforcers who had prepared themselves to be helped but later had to adjust their strategies to

quench the riots. Therefore, the PCA act is ineffective for the American people. It only makes

the work harder for the Homeland security instead of helping them stop such internal issues that

help the society be a better place.

JTF-6 and the Branch Davidians

This is another case study that shows how the PCA act is a hindrance to the homeland

security especially in trying to make America a better place for its citizens. In this case, the

congress in 1981 decide to pass the “1981 Military and Civilian Law Enforcement Statute and

McElreath, David H., Daniel Adrian Doss, Hilliard Lackey, Mike Wigginton, and Don W. Jones. "State defense

forces: Strategic resources for homeland security and emergency management." 2015-2016 OFFICERS President

President-Elect Program Chair Program Chair-Elect (2016): 264.

Baker, Natalie D. "“Making it Worse than What really Happened”: social chaos and Preparedness as Problematic

Mythologies in Disaster communication." Frontiers in Communication 1 (2016): 2.

Posse Comitatus Act 11

1982 defense Authorization Act.”

This led to the addition of Chapter 18 to Title 10 U.S.C.

The reason for this act was increasing the assistance of the military to civil authorities. They also

wanted the military to contribute to the war against drugs. As such, theJTF-6 now referred to as

JFT-N was formed in 1989 as a federal military task in aiding with the fight against drugs in the

United States. This however did not materialize. On February 1993, the task force received a

request to assist in operations that involved a religious sect called the Branch Davidians.

This

group was led by David Koresh. The group had been monitored for some time in relation to

drugs and alcoholism. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms wanted to conduct a search

warrant in this place.

The BAFTA requested assistance from the JFT-6 which included medical personnel,

firing range support, and evacuation personnel and training.

This did not materialize again like

the LA Riots. The legal advice from the military lawyers cautioned the JFT-6 against

participating in this activity. This led to the task force withdrawing and leaving the BAFTA to

deal with the situation alone. The hesitation by the JFT-6 caused some of the members to escape.

However, their participation as well led to condemnation from the public and the media. They

were criticized for their involvement. Although the JFT-6 were mandated to participate in

activities related to drug use in the American soil, the misunderstanding of legal advisors led it to

be a big issue.

Once again, the confusion related to the use of military for law enforcement

Ibid., 264.

Ibid., 2.

McElreath, David H., Daniel Adrian Doss, Hilliard Lackey, Mike Wigginton, and Don W. Jones. "State defense

forces: Strategic resources for homeland security and emergency management." 2015-2016 OFFICERS President

President-Elect Program Chair Program Chair-Elect (2016): 264.

Kopel, David B., and Paul M. Blackman. "Can Soldiers Be Peace Officers? The Waco Disaster and the

Militarization of American Law Enforcement." Akron Law Review 30, no. 4 (2015): 2.

Ibid., 2.

Posse Comitatus Act 12

shows how it hinders the progress of homeland security. Many at times when the federal military

have the chance to help with law enforcement, the PCA comes into play downplaying their

addition to the law enforcers.

In this same situation, the use of the military became undefined

and resulted in the bad people ensuing. The people involved in drugs could have been arrested

easily. Conversely, drugs would have been a small issue in the United States if the JFT-6 would

have continued with their work. So far the current drug force has failed in nailing the issue of

drugs in the country leaving millions of people suffering from its use. Homeland security

therefore continues to be in shambles because of the refusal of the military to participate in law

enforcement. The PCA act has made it difficult for them to be part of the American task force.

Hurricane Katrina

Hurricane Katrina is one of the disasters that caused a huge loss of property for

Americans as well as lives of people. The Hurricane happened in 2005, specifically near

Mississippi and Louisiana coasts.

During this period, the government requested task force who

could help with this situation to form a joint task team. There were 17,000 active duty troops,

42,000 National Guard, and 20 US ships were deployed to this particular area.

One of the

shortcomings of the task force was that there was unity but not one command or authority. The

president had requested the federal military to assist in this area under the Insurrection Act to

prevent vandalism, looting, and rioting. However, this could not happen because of the PCA.

Although the Insurrection Act allowed the military to help people in the area, stopping things

such as looting was not part of their task. As such, this led to massive looting and vandalism of

Cairns, Kathleen A. "Brenda E. Stevenson. The Contested Murder of Latasha Harlins: Justice, Gender, and the

Origins of the LA Riots." The American Historical Review 119, no. 3 (2014): 947-948.

Ibid., 947.

Ibid., 948

Posse Comitatus Act 13

property. The federal military could only look at what was going but could not help at all. Their

power forbids them to make arrests.

In this case, it can be identified how the PCA act is a total hindrance to homeland

security. For instance, the national guards would have been confident that the military would

help in stopping vandalism. However, this was not the case because the PCA did not give them

such a power. The looting was happening right in front of their eyes. The federal military in this

case made it worse for the national guards to stop the vandalism and looting. Apart from not

stopping vandalism, they would have ensured that they mitigated injury to persons in this area

from the vandals and looters. In many cases, it can be identified that unity of effort usually

happens but because of the different chain of commands, the unity of command become non-

existent.

The case studies show that PCA hinders the work of homeland security in the United

States. The homeland security needs all the help it can get to mitigate the risk that faces the

country. The military possesses some of the best equipment and intelligence that can help with

controlling these issues.

Additionally, the military has the man power that can be used in all the

problems that faces the country especially when it comes to terrorism or rather, law enforcement.

The failure to use the military can be categorized as a waste of resources and citizens tax. Most

of the federal military are holed up in their camps without any work apart from those who are in

foreign countries such as Afghanistan, Syria and Iraq fighting off terrorists.

All the others who

Kahan, Jerome H. "What's in a name? The meaning of homeland security." Journal of Homeland Security

Education 2 (2013): 1.

Cairns, Kathleen A. "Brenda E. Stevenson. The Contested Murder of Latasha Harlins: Justice, Gender, and the

Origins of the LA Riots." The American Historical Review 119, no. 3 (2014): 947-948.

Posse Comitatus Act 14

are in the country would have helped to keep law and order in one way or another. The biggest

help that these people can give to the homeland security is ensuring that during disasters, they

can be available. The simple law enforcement such as thuggery, petty thieves, and household

cases can be carried out easily by the homeland security. The federal military can as well help

with dealing with social issues that have continued to degrade the lives of many American’s such

as drugs. The fight against drugs has yielded no fruit and it should be time the military can be

used during these operations. By continuing to uphold the PCA act, the government is ensuring

that the homeland does not work to its limit. Cases of terrorism will continue to be prevalent in

the country as well as drug use. It is high time that the government considers the use of the

federal military to help homeland security to keep the people of America safe from all vices that

can affect them.

Future of Posse Comitatus Act

After the 9/11, there have been several debates regarding whether Posse Comitatus Act

should be rescinded or not.

Different individuals have come up with ideas that rescinding the

act will lead to federal forces having a better ability to mitigate the loss, injury, vandalism and

looting in times of distress in an area or crisis. It can however be argued that the Posse Comitatus

Act is an artifact of the difference between slavery and freedom or the South and North. During

that period, the main conflict was freedom and slavery. Right now, the main conflict is between

terrorism and civilization. The act therefore does not represent the current times. It is an act that

Kahan, Jerome H. "What's in a name? The meaning of homeland security." Journal of Homeland Security

Education 2 (2013): 1.

Posse Comitatus Act 15

is based on a different conflict. The act should therefore be changed totally so that it can

represent the new people or the new society.

Currently, if a catastrophic event happened in the United States, there are few

respondents that could help with the situation. Time as proved that the respondents such as

national guards always become overwhelmed at a certain stage during crisis. One of the biggest

problems is the bureaucratic red tape which usually takes time and leads to loss of lives. The

unnecessary delays caused by these bureaucratic processes have been known to worsen any

crisis.

In cases of distresses, the response should be instant, well organized and the directions

are clear. Having the federal military without knowing if they can partake in a rescue mission is a

big issue for homeland security. There are many movements within the government that can

ensure that the PCA act is changed or rather removed so that the process of helping people is

made easy.

It is therefore necessary that a new bill be ratified. The current Posse Comitatus Act need

to be repealed. New provision should be passed which will allow the federal military to perform

across the board of spectrum of departments and agencies in order for them to work in a single

unity of effort during and before the times of need. The government should apply a cohesive plan

or legalize properly and utilize the civilian and military force to support the homeland security

especially the national government. One of the recommendations that can be made is the creation

of one director of National Intelligence whom will have the power to unite the various 27

agencies of the intelligence community.

Rizer, Arthur. "Trading Police for Soldiers: Has the Posse Comitatus Act Helped Militarize Our Police and Set the

Stage for More Fergusons." Nev. LJ 16 (2015): 467.

Posse Comitatus Act 16

Conclusion

In conclusion, Posse Comitatus Act is an act that can be considered outdated. The federal

military are not used effectively in the United States. This is the group that has information as

well as physical asset that can be used to mitigate problems in times of crisis. Posse Comitatus

Act has ensured that such activities cannot be carried out. The federal military therefore continue

to be underutilized in every aspect. It is worth noting that not all of the federal military are used

in foreign combat. Majority of them are based in the country. These soldiers could use some

training or rather be given small duties to make them active. By being given various functions,

they will help homeland security to combat cases of terrorism and other kind of activities that are

against the law.

The homeland security is striving to ensure all the people live in harmony. The cases of

Los Angeles Riots and Hurricane Katrina are just examples of how the PCA has managed to

worsen the situation of Homeland security. The main route that can be taken now is rescinding

the Posse Comitatus Act. A new bill can then be drafted which will encompass the federal

military activities within the country. This will help the homeland security in mitigating both

natural and man-made disasters in the country. The two can achieve great success by ensuring

that the people live in peace. The cases of terrorism will greatly reduce thereby making the

country safe for its citizens. Posse Comitatus Act should be done away with as soon as possible.

Posse Comitatus Act 17

Bibliography

Baker, Bonnie. "The origins of the posse comitatus." Air and Space Power Chronicles 1 (1999).

Baker, Natalie D. "“Making it Worse than What really Happened”: social chaos and

Preparedness as Problematic Mythologies in Disaster communication." Frontiers in

Communication 1 (2016): 2.

Bea, Keith. "Federal Stafford Act Disaster Assistance: Presidential Declarations, Eligible

Activities, and Funding." library of congress Washington dc congressional research

service, 2010.

Cairns, Kathleen A. "Brenda E. Stevenson. The Contested Murder of Latasha Harlins: Justice,

Gender, and the Origins of the LA Riots." The American Historical Review 119, no. 3

(2014): 947-948.

Elsea, Jennifer K. "The use of federal troops for disaster assistance: Legal issues." library of

congress washington dc congressional research service, 2006.

Hall, Abigail R., and Christopher J. Coyne. "The militarization of US domestic policing." The

Independent Review 17, no. 4 (2013): 485-504.

Posse Comitatus Act 18

Haynes, John T., and Linda C. Rodriguez. "EMERGENCY, EMERGENCY!: Local Emergency

Manager Perspectives On Partnerships With Defense Services For Emergencies." In

Proceedings of the International Association for Business and Society, vol. 27, pp. 72-81.

2016.

Kahan, Jerome H. "What's in a name? The meaning of homeland security." Journal of Homeland

Security Education 2 (2013): 1.

Kealy, Sean J. "Reexamining the Posse Comitatus Act: Toward a Right to Civil Law

Enforcement." Yale Law & Policy Review 21, no. 2 (2015): 3.

Kealy, Sean J. "Reexamining the Posse Comitatus Act: Toward a Right to Civil Law

Enforcement." Yale Law & Policy Review 21, no. 2 (2015): 3.

Kopel, David B., and Paul M. Blackman. "Can Soldiers Be Peace Officers? The Waco Disaster

and the Militarization of American Law Enforcement." Akron Law Review 30, no. 4

(2015): 2

McElreath, David H., Daniel Adrian Doss, Hilliard Lackey, Mike Wigginton, and Don W. Jones.

"State defense forces: Strategic resources for homeland security and emergency

management." 2015-2016 OFFICERS President President-Elect Program Chair

Program Chair-Elect (2016): 264.

Nevitt, Mark. "Unintended Consequences: The Posse Comitatus Act in the Modern Era." (2014).

Rizer, Arthur. "Trading Police for Soldiers: Has the Posse Comitatus Act Helped Militarize Our

Police and Set the Stage for More Fergusons." Nev. LJ 16 (2015): 467.

Tighe, Scott, and William Brown. "The Militarization of Law Enforcement: Bypassing the Posse

Comitatus Act." (2015).

Posse Comitatus Act 19

Weston, Mark C. Review of the Posse Comitatus Act After Hurricane Katrina. ARMY WAR

COLL CARLISLE BARRACKS PA, 2006.

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