Racial Profiling Against Blacks

Running Head: RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 1

Police Racial Profiling against Blacks

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RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 2

Introduction

While driving there is no guarantee that one is safe on the road; worse still in the US, it is

less safe when one is driving and they are Black (Geiger-Oneto and Phillips, 2008). In the recent

decades, videos and news reports have confirmed that the White police officers have engaged in

racialized treatments against the African Americans. By the start of the millennium, according to

Gallup Poll Social Audit, four in every ten Black Americans have been victims of the police

racial profiling (Newport, 1999). Today, the statistics are worse off, making the minority

Americans a target of institutionalized profiling just because of their Black race. Indeed, despite

claims that the contemporary US society has embraced the ‘post-racial era’, racial profiling in

law enforcement continues to be a very disturbing national challenge (ACLU Report, 2018).

From humiliating searches to frightening detentions, use of excessive force, and even outright

shooting, the members of Black race face endless fear and torture of being stopped by a White

law enforcement officer.

This paper deeply explores the topic of racial profiling by the police force in the US and

its impacts on the identity of the Black race in the US. It highlights the constant struggle by a

people that deserve to be treated with respect, equality, and justice. Since the racial profiling is

not only historical but also very prevalent, it is prime time to put an end to it so that members of

Black race enjoy their civil liberties and feel safer on the roads.

Overview of Racial Profiling

As widely accepted, profiling is the act of scrutinizing an individual’s psychological and

behavioral traits so as to map their capabilities in a certain social space (Glaser, 2012).

Generally, profiling is acceptable and used extensively by marketers, politicians, corporates and

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 3

even the police. If utilized in a legitimate way and correctly, profiling is an essential tool to

ascertain behavior of a target person or group. In the law enforcement, profiling, undeniably is a

great tool to map persons with criminal tendencies and thus suitable for crime prevention. Bu

then profiling can base on different aspects such as one’s gender, location, age bracket, race, and

religious affiliations among many others. In that view, Glaser defines racial profiling as ‘the use

by law enforcement officials of race, ethnicity, or national origin (or proxies thereof) as a basis

of criminal suspicion (2012: 496).’

Indeed, racial profiling entails the abuse of civil liberties and is a discriminatory practice

that translates negatively on law enforcement ethics of practice and goals. Condemning the vice,

Jones (2014) provides that racial profiling in law enforcement has persisted in the American

society for decades, greatly disadvantaging the minority races mainly the Latino and Black

Americans. Drawing from a qualitative study of police racial profiling and brutality against the

Black and Latino motorists, it was established that survivors of racialized experiences normally

undergo psychological problems. They often feel traumatized, encounter state of helplessness,

and even question why they belong to that intimidated race (Ortiz, 2016). Thus, racialized

treatments have enormous negative impacts on identity shaping and how the minorities feel as

part of the diverse American society.

In the same breath, it is very important to highlight that the US legal provisions have

outlawed any form of racial profiling, by individuals and any agency. It is against the spirit of

cohesion, equality, and inclusivity. For instance, Glaser (2012) provides that in the US

constitution, the Fourth Amendment offer provisions that protect every US citizen against

unreasonable seizure and search. It means that for the law enforcers, they should act with

decency and nor forcefully which creates racial tensions between them and motorists. In

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 4

addition, the Fourteenth Amendment has outlined the equal protection provisions that make it

illegal for one to be subjected to instances of racial profiling (Glaser, 2012). But then one could

ask, why the racial profiling so rampant yet it is outlawed in the constitution. That is the question

that continually puzzles the affected members of the Black race who face racial profiling and

brutality experiences with the White motorists. Largely, the African Americans see that the

current legal frameworks are theoretical and US Department of Justice is not keen on prosecuting

the racial profiling cases. In other words, widespread cases of racial profiling water down the

trust of the minorities in the justice system.

A Brief History of Police Racial Profiling

Racial profiling can be traced to a couple of centuries ago when the Black people were

sold and bought as slaves to work on the American farms. Back then, the White supremacists

treated them as commodity. But in continued reforms, during the second quarter of the

nineteenth century, slavery was stopped, giving more rights to the Black people (Méndez, 2016).

Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, racist acts have proven that the members of

the Black race have not been fully integrated with respect and equality in the US society. On

racial profiling, cases surfaced as early as the 1990s. In 1991, in what is deemed first recording

by a passerby showed two Los Angeles police officers harassing a Black motorist, Rodney King

(Scott, 2016).

A year later, Malice Green, a Black motorist was caught on tape being subjected to

harassment and beating by Detroit White cops. Such cases happened over the years throughout

1997. Then, on the eve of Valentine’s Day in 1999, Michael Grunwald, a Black immigrant was

killed when racialized police treatment escalated to a shooting (Carbado and Rock, 2016).

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 5

Several months on, Amadou Diallo became another victim by the New York City Police

Department. Even through the late 1990s and start of the current millennium, videos, personal

testimonies, court cases and media reports have highlighted the prevalence of racialized

treatment of police officers. Most the victims involved, male and female, are unarmed African

Americans.

Fast-forward; there have been recent cases of assaults and deaths of unarmed Black

people, including teens and motorists. For instance, on the 2013 Memorial Day, a couple of

Miami-Dade Police choked reportedly chocked a 14-year-old Black boy for giving them

‘dehumanizing stares’ (Scott, 2016). And recently, the assault and death of Trayvon Martin, a

young unarmed Black man in 2013 sparked public outcry. Since it was in the digital era, a

Twitter hash tag went up, #BlackLivesMatter (Rickford, 2015). A year later, more cases of ill-

treatment and deaths (such as of the 18-year old Michael Brown) triggered the 2014 Ferguson

uprisings to push for respect in the treatment of African Americans (Jack and Nicole, 2014).

Worth noting, the Black Lives Matter has turned into a young Black advocacy movement to call

for justice and stop to the police racialized profiling and treatment against the Black populations

in neighborhoods, workplaces and on roads (Rickford, 2015).

What Racial Profiling Statistics Say

Due to the prevalence of racial profiling, several studies and surveys have been

undertaken throughout the country to give more insights on the issue. Lopez (2018) cites a recent

study the Guardian newspaper on racial profiling in the country. Findings suggest that African

Americans have a double chance of being shot by White police officers than the White

counterparts. Singling out 2016 alone, the Guardian study revealed that White cops killed

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 6

Blacks at the rate of 6.66 for every 1 million people while the ratio of White murders stood at 2.9

per 1 million persons (Lopez, 2018). Closely tied to this study, another one by the CDC showed

that between the years 1968 and 2011, the African Americans were 4.2 times more likely to die

in hands of cops compared to the Whites (Dreier, 2016). The data on shooting unarmed Blacks

point clearly that police act out of racial profiling, as they target minorities.

Then, Newport (1999) provided that the Gallup Poll Social Audit showed that 40 percent

of Blacks have been victims of the police profiling in the decade ending 1999. Yet, the same

study found that 81 percent of the American public did not approve of police racist activities.

More recently, the 2018 National Geographic Magazine Report cited that the Black minority

motorists are more likely to be pulled over by law enforcement officers than the White motorists.

Another survey showed that even law-abiding Black motorists are in the constant fear of being

pulled over as police often perceive them to be criminals (Geiger-Oneto and Phillips, 2008). It is

thus apparent that a huger share of about 20 million annual police traffic stops throughout the

country entails the drivers of African American race (National Geographic Magazine Report,

2018). And yet, not only motorists are affected. Joscha (2016) samples about 3.9 million

geocoded pedestrian stops and conclude that more police force is applied to Black suspects

compared to Hispanics and Whites.

Then, Marakechi (2018) for The Hive samples 18 studies that show police racial profiling

against the Blacks. For instance, a University of California study found that the chances of police

shooting an unarmed and Black person are about 3.49 times more than to unarmed Whites. The

Washington Post data showed that shot Black suspects are less likely to have posed an imminent

threat to police. In addition, a San Franciscan report by retired state and federal judges found

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 7

that although in 2015, African Americans were attributed to less than 15 percent of the total

number of police traffic stops, the non-consent searches attributed to them stood at 42 percent of

total cases (Marakechi, 2018). Then, a 2014 survey by the Illinois Department of Transportation

retaliated that Latino and Black motorists were twice more likely to be flagged down for routine

checks. And yet, Caucasian White motorists are 49 percent more likely than Black drivers to

possess contrabands (Marakechi, 2018).

Still on statistical review, in North Carolina’s Greensboro, the 2015 New York Times

survey revealed that cars with Black drivers were twice more likely to be searched than those

with White drivers, yet drugs and weapons were more often in the latter (Marakechi, 2018).

Then, between the start of 2004 and mid-2012, New York police enforcers made 4.4 million

traffic stops, 83 percent of which were on Black/Hispanic motorists. In his 2013 determination, a

New York Federal District Court judge termed the NYPD such stops and searches as violating

the constitutional rights (Marakechi, 2018). Then in a 2010-2015 study by Center for Policing

Equity, the Blacks were found far more likely to be victims of the excessive police force than

Whites if racial connotations are used in the crime. Lastly, a team of professors from Portland

State University, Boston University, U.C.L.A., and Harvard made an extensive review of

suspects’ booking photographs. Their hypothesis was; ‘the Whiter one appears, the more the

suspect will be protected from police force (Marakechi, 2018).’ In their findings, they tested the

hypothesis providing that law enforcers employed less force on highly stereotypical Whites as

compared to the suspects from other races (Marakechi, 2018).

From the statistics sampled above, it is clear that police actions often take a racial angle.

The surveys and studies explored are just a few among the many that confirm the racist nature of

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 8

profiling the persons in the US society. The findings tell it all. The African Americans, being

one of the minority races, face endless instances of unwarranted stops, searches, use of excessive

force and even shot (Kamalu, 2016).

For many of the Blacks, especially motorists have stereotyped their experiences with

police. As such, the public-police interactions are characterized by tension as the Black motorists

are unsure whether they will end up being assaulted, jailed or even shot. The situation is thus

very fluid and its projects a bad image of the police force that is expected to act with high levels

of moderation and professionalism. As Jones (2014) puts it, the notion of a post-racial society is

still an illusion as cases of racial profiling toward the minorities are the new norm. Dreier (2016)

calls it an ‘epidemic of police violence’ and many other writers have coined different phrases

from police racism and so on. Then, it is worth emphasizing that the police racial bias demeans

the members of the Black race and negatively affects their identities.

Why should Black Lives Matter?

Human life, irrespective of race, gender, religious affiliation, and nationality is precious

and all individuals should be accorded respect, justice, and equality. The Black lives matter in

the US society matter, for the very reason that those from other races do matter. Despite being a

minority people, the Blacks have a special place, just like the others. The cases of profiling are

not only illegal but wrong from a moral point of view. At the declaration of independence, the

founders said that ‘All humans are created equal.’ And to this day and combining days, the

equality in the country should be luxurious. Everyone needs to conform to that. The White law

enforcement officers associated with racial profiling cross this line. If Blacks were genuinely

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 9

viewed as equal, there would be no instance of unwarranted stops, frisks and brutal handling of

African American motorists and pedestrians (Méndez, 2016).

As a modern-day advocacy group, Black Lives Matter seeks to raise awareness of this

equality and condemn what appears like institutionalized racism by the police against the

unarmed Black youth, men, and women. The upsurge of Black Lives Matter (BLM) has been

witnessed based on police misconduct on the members of the Black population (Rickford, 2015).

Each case of profiling, brutality or even a shooting is no longer viewed as just another statistic.

The members of the Black community feel targeted and are openly expressing their fears and

worries. BLM is an active activist wing to fight against racism towards the African Americans.

Otherwise, the Blacks continually think that ‘White America’ perceives them as less worth in the

society that’s why racist profiling is being done unto them.

Behind the racial profiling thought-out the country, there is the concept of Black rage- the

anger and resentment that the Black community is not valued and treated equally to the dominant

White race (Shakur, 2017). It is the continuous frustration that has persisted as reports of racial

profiling, brutality and shootings flood the media. While a section of the racist White police

force believes there is a thin line between Blacks and crime, which is a dangerous stereotype. On

the other hand, the Blacks stereotype the police as quick to use force on to them. Therefore, out

of frustrations, there are racial tensions in almost every traffic police stop (Shakur, 2017). Such a

picture is not good for a country that has declared to enter into a post-racial era where everyone

supposedly is treated justly and equally.

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 10

Possible interventions to Police Racialized profiling

First, there is a need for comprehensive police reforms in almost every police department

on the treatment of minority races especially motorists or even in Black neighborhoods. Such

training should be objective and evidence-based so that the law enforcers work towards reduced

racial tension and restrain from excessive use of force. To solve this social problem, it is

important that they are trained in making profiling professionally, to save harm and trouble to

well-intentioned unarmed African Americans.

Then, community-liaison programs need to be stepped up. Forums such as community

outreaches, workshops, and open-days need to be organized so that the police force learns much

from minority groups. Partners in these forums could be community leaders, the religious, state

officials, academia, activists among others. They should deliberate on what racial profiling is, the

impacts and ways to reduce it in localized areas. The police departments should show readiness

to prosecute rogue and corrupt officers who are quick to profile and abuse innocent Blacks based

on their race. Such liaisons will ease tensions and improve the public-police ties, and perceptions

to build more trust.

Conclusion

The racial profiling of law enforcement officers towards the African Americans has been

documented as a historical problem. To this day, it lacks an outright solution and instances of

excessive use of force, unwarranted stoppages and searches as well as killing unarmed Blacks

are widespread. In the spirit of equality, racial profiling demeans the African Americans, as

unworthy in the society. As a result, Black rage and frustration have been witnessed forming the

basis for activism movements such as Black Lives Matter. Statistical evidence shows that Black

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 11

motorists and pedestrians are far more than Whites likely to be stopped by White law enforcers

than Whites. In the light of such happenings, the police force has generally failed in advancing

professional service, accounting for numerous cases resulting from racial profiling. Simply and

plainly put, racial profiling of the police against the Blacks is a deep social problem that

continues to divide the US society along racial lines. Despite calls for a post-racial era, there is

the need for tangible solutions to the menace. Two proposed solutions include police retraining

on profiling and treating minority Blacks as well as community-liaison programs to boost trust

and cohesion between Blacks and law enforcers.

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 12

List of References

ACLU Conference Report (2018). Race and Criminal Justice: Racial Profiling. Retrieved on 30

April 2018 from https://www.aclu.org/issues/racial-justice/race-and-criminal-

justice/racial-profiling

Carbado, D.W., and Rock, P. (2016). What Exposes African Americans to Police Violence?

Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review Vol. 51 Pp. 159-187

Dreier, P. (2016). Police Racism. The American Prospect Article. Retrieved on 30 April 2018

from http://prospect.org/article/caught-camera-police-racism

Geiger-Oneto, S, and Phillips, S. (2008). Driving While Black. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal

Justice Volume 1, Issue 2 Pp. 1-25

Glaser. M. (2012). Chapter 31: Racial Profiling in Racial Profiling Debates in Immigration,

SAGE Publishing. Pp. 491-508

Jack, H., and Nikole, H. (2016). Blue and Black. New York Times Upfront. 9/19/2016, Vol. 149

Issue 2, p6-9. 4p.

Jones, W. (2014). Racial Profiling: Balancing Safety with Citizens’ Rights. Diverse: Issues in

Higher Education Magazine Sept 2014 Issue. Pp. 19-21

Kamalu, N.C. (2016). African Americans and Racial Profiling by U.S. Law Enforcement: An

Analysis of Police Traffic Stops and Searches of motorists in Nebraska, 2002 –

2007. African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies: AJCJS, Vol.9, Issue 1

Pp. 187-206

Lopez, G. (2017). We only shoot Black people,” Georgia cop assures woman during traffic stop.

Vox News. Retrieved on 30 April 2018 from

https://www.vox.com/identities/2017/8/31/16232880/georgia-police-cobb-county-

video

Marakechi, K. (2016). What the Data Really Says About Police and Racial Bias. Vanity Fair.

Retrieved on 30 April 2018 from https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2016/07/data-

police-racial-bias

National Geographic Magazine. (2018). For Black Motorists, a Never-Ending Fear of Being

Stopped. Retrieved on 30 April 2018 from

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/04/the-stop-race-police-

traffic/

Newport, F. (1999). Racial Profiling is seen as Widespread, Particularly among Young Black

Men. Retrieved on 30 April 2018 http://news.gallup.com/poll/3421/racial-

profiling-seen-widespread-particularly-among-young-Black-men.aspx

Ortiz, M. (2016). “Stop Resisting!” An Exploratory Study of Police Brutality and its Impacts on

Black and Latino Males, their Communities, Mental Health and Healing. Master

of Social Work Thesis Pp. 138-145.

Rickford, R. (2015). Black Lives Matter: Toward a Modern Practice of Mass Struggle. New

Labor Forum Vol. 25(1) Pp. 34– 42

Shakur, P. (2017). Black Power and Police Brutality: Where Does Black Rage Go? Medium

Corporation. Retrieved on 30 April 2018 from

https://medium.com/@pr.shakur/Black-power-and-police-brutality-where-does-

Black-rage-go-aa0a931b37c1

Scott, R.A. (2016). Etiquette of Police Brutality. A Handy Guide to Confronting Unarmed

Citizens. The Crisis Magazine. Pp. 12-19

RACIAL PROFILING AGAINST BLACKS 13

Méndez, X. (2016). Which Black Lives Matter? Gender, State-Sanctioned Violence, and “My

Brother’s Keeper”. Radical History Review Issue 126 Pp. 96-105 doi

10.1215/01636545-3594445

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