Radiowaves And Its Applications In Modern World

RUNNING HEAD:RADIO WAVES AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN MODERN WORLD

RADIOWAVES AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN MODERN WORLD

NAME OF AUTHORS

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RADIO WAVES AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN MODERN WORLD

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research was supported by American University Washington DC. We thank our colleagues from American University

who provided insight, and expertise that greatly assisted the research and also supported us financially so that we can come

up with this manuscript. We are very grateful. Thank you and God bless you all.

RADIO WAVES AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN MODERN WORLD

Abstract- Radio Physics is a branch of physics which deals

in the theoretical and experimental study of different kind of

radiations: how radiations are emitted, their propagation

and their interaction with the matter. Radiophysics, in short,

can be described as the study of radio waves. This paper

focuses on the study of radio waves, their history, their

propagation i.e. how they travel between the medium and

their applications in our modern day world. This paper aims

at bringing to understanding the radio waves which is

playing a very great role in modernizing our environment

Index Terms- Radio waves, wavelength, amplitude,

propagation, frequency, electromagnetic radiation,

transmitter, antennae, transmitters, emitters, wireless

HISTORY OF RADIO WAVES

They were first discovered by mathematical work done by

James Clerk Maxwell a mathematical physicist on 1867

whereby Maxwell noticed wavelike properties of light and

similarities in electrical and magnetic observation. Later

James Clerk Maxwell developed a mathematical theory

called Maxwell equations. He described radio waves as the

waves of electromagnetism that travel in space which is

radiated by the charged particles as they undergo

acceleration. [8]

In 1887, Heinrich Hertz demonstrated the reality of

Maxwell’s electromagnetic waves by experimentally

generating radio waves in his laboratory. As He studied the

properties which were exhibited. He discovered that they

had the same properties as the light i.e. Standing waves,

refraction, diffraction, polarisation. Radio waves were first

used in the mid-1890s by Guglielmo Marconi an Italian

inventor and electrical engineer who developed the first

practical radio transmitters and receivers. [8]

General radio timeline

Below are listed a timeline of the radio from 1880s-1990s

which show how the discovery of radio waves has resulted

in the various invention and adjustment up to our modern

wireless communication which is widely known because of

Mobile Phones and Radios.[5]

1885- Heinrich Hertz proved that electricity can be

transmitted in electromagnetic waves. He conducted

experiments in sending and receiving these waves during the

late 1880s.

1891- Wireless Telegraph began to appear on ships at sea.

This invention reduced the isolation

of the ships which lead to improved reliability and safety

1892-1893: Nikola Tesla wirelessly transmitted

electromagnetic energy. He made the first public

demonstration of radio in St Louis in 1893

1896-1897: Guglielmo Marconi filed for patent protection of

his radio apparatus. He established the wireless telegraph

and signal company in 1897.

1899: The R.F. Mathews was the first ship to request

emergency assistance using a wireless apparatus i.e.

Marconi’s System

1901- First transAtlantic signal sent by Marconi from

Ireland to Canada

1902: Amateur radio introduced to the U.S. via a scientific

article. i.e. “How to Construct an Efficient Wireless

Telegraphy Apparatus at Small Cost.”

1906: Reginald Fessenden was the first to transmit a

program of speech and music.

1906: Lee Deforest produced the “Audion”, a trode vacuum

tube that allowed for amplification of radio signals

1910: First Radio transmission from an aeroplane

1912: Federal regulation of American waves begins

Amateurs had to be licensed; ships had to have a radio and

trained operators

1917: All U.S. radio station not needed by the government

were shut downs

1918: Edwin Armstrong patented the super Heterodyne

receiver based on work he did as an officer in the Army

Signal Corp.

1927: The federal Radio Commission established to bring

order to chaotic airwaves.

1947: Cellular radio telephony with call handoff and

frequency reuse, was conceived at Bell Laboratories.

1970: The FCC reallocated TV channels 70-83 for

mobile radio services

1985: The FCC permitted spread spectrum, the

technology of choice for many of today’s digital,

commercial cellular and PCs services

1992: The FCC reallocated spectrum at 2GHz for

emerging digital mobile services.

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1995: The first cellular system using digital CDMA

technology was commercially launched by

QUALCOMM. [5]

Understanding Radio Waves

Radio waves are the type of magnetic radiation

with a wavelength in the electronic spectrum longer

than infrared light. They travel at the speed of light

similarly to all other radiations. Radio waves can be

generated in two ways i.e. naturally and artificially.

Naturally occurring radio waves which are generated

by the lightning or astronomical objects. Artificial

generated radio waves which are generated by a radio

transmitter and then received by a radio receiver. [3]

What are waves?

A wave is an oscillation or disturbance which is

accompanied by a transfer of energy that travels

through a medium (space or mass) or the repeating

and periodic disturbance that moves through a

medium (a substance that carries wave) from one

location to another. A wave has a certain speed,

frequency, amplitude and wavelength. The following

mathematical model is used to show the relationship

between them:

Speed= Frequency * Wavelength

Wavelength which is sometimes referred to as

lambda is the distance measured from the point of

one wave to the equivalent part of the next i.e. from

the top of one peak to the next peak [1]

Frequency is the number of whole waves that pass a

fixed point in a period of time. Speed is how fast the

wave travels. Speed is measured in meters/second,

the frequency is measured in cycle per seconds (or

Hertz, Hz), and wavelength is measured in meters.

Amplitude is the distance from the centre of the wave

to the extreme of one of its peaks (the height of the

wave).

The relationship between frequency, wavelength and

amplitude are shown below

Fig 1.1 [13]

Propagation of Radio Waves

Propagation of radio waves is the behaviour of

radio waves as they are propagated, from one point to

another, or into various part of the atmosphere. In the

developing telecommunication services, it is crucial

first to understand the propagation of radio waves

which are used in the transmission of information

from one place to another. Radio propagation is

affected by the change in weather e.g. change in

water vapour and ionisation in the upper atmosphere

which is influenced by the sun. [1]

Radio waves propagate in the space according to a

different mechanism. (Flickenger, Aichele, & Fonda,

2006) Namely:

 Free Space propagation

 Reflection

 Line of Sight Propagation

 Transmission

 Diffraction

 Scattering

 Wave Guiding

(i)Free Space Propagation (Line of Sight)

In this mechanism, a wave propagates without

encountering any obstacles between the medium. The

surface of the wave is the set of all points reached at

a certain time after the moment wave is emitted from

a homogenous medium. The attenuation in free space

propagation comes from the scattering of energy

which occurs as the wave propagates away from the

transmitter. Free space attenuation is a function of the

distance and the frequency. The excess attenuation

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compared to free space attenuation is defined as the

difference between the path loss and free path

attenuation.

(ii)Refraction

This is a phenomenon whereby vibrations or

waves are reflected at a surface according to Snell-

Descartes law. Snell-Descartes law is a formula used

to describe the relationship between the angle of

incidence and refraction when referring to light or

other waves passing through a boundary between two

different is, such as water, glass, or air. This

phenomenon occurs when a propagating wave

impinges upon a surface with large dimensions

compared to the wavelength. It is found that the

direction of an electromagnetic wave changes as it

moves from an area of one refractive index to another.

The angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are

linked by Snell's Law that states:

n1 sin (theta 1) = n2 sin (theta 2)

For radio signals, there are comparatively few

instances where the signals move abruptly from a

region with one refractive index to a region with

another. It is far more common for there to be

comparatively gradual change. This causes the

direction of the signal to bend rather than undergo an

immediate change in direction. [12]

(iii)Transmission

This Phenomenon is the process whereby

vibrations or waves propagates through a medium for

instance vacuum, the air or an obstacle, without a

change of frequency according to Snell-Descartes

law. Various transmission is used to propagate waves

through a medium. In Regular transmission, the wave

propagates through an object without diffusion. In

Diffuse transmission, a phenomenon of diffusion

occurs at a macroscopic scale independent of

refraction laws. The Transmission coefficient is

defined as the ratio between the transmitted energy

flux and the incident energy flux. [1]

(iv) Diffraction

This phenomenon occurs when waves impinge

upon an obstacle or an aperture with large dimension

compared to the wavelength. This Phenomenon is

one of the most important factors in the propagation

of radio waves and results in disturbances affecting

the propagation of these waves, for instance, the

bending of the path around an obstacle or beam

divergence. ((Flickenger, 2006)

To understand the diffraction Huygens’s principle is

applied. Huygens’s Principle states that “each point

on a spherical wave front can be considered as a

source of a secondary wave front. Even though there

will be a shadow zone immediately behind the

obstacle, the signal will diffract around the obstacle

and start to fill the void. It is found that diffraction is

more pronounced when the obstacle becomes sharper

and more like a "knife edge". For a radio signal, a

mountain ridge may provide a sufficiently sharp

edge. A more rounded hill will not produce such a

marked effect. It is also found that low-frequency

signals diffract more markedly than higher frequency

ones. It is for this reason that signals on the long

wave band are able to provide coverage even in hilly

or mountainous terrain where signals at VHF and

higher would not.”

(v) Reflection

When reflection occurs, the angle of incidence is

equal to the angle of reflection for a conducting

surface as would be expected for light. When a signal

is reflected there is normally some loss of the signal,

either through absorption or as a result of some of the

signal passing into the medium. A variety of surfaces

can reflect radio signals. For long distance

communications, the sea provides one of the best

reflecting surfaces. Other wet areas provide a good

reflection of radio signals. Desert areas are poor

reflectors and other types of landfall in between these

two extremes. In general, though, wet areas provide

better reflectors.

For relatively short range communications, many

buildings especially those with metallic surfaces

provide excellent reflectors of radio energy. There are

also many other metallic structures such as

warehouses that give excellent reflecting surfaces. As

a result of this signals travelling to and from cellular

phones often travel via a variety of paths. Similar

effects are noticed for Wi-Fi and other short-range

wireless communications. An office environment

contains many surfaces that reflect radio signals very

effectively.

(vi) Scattering

This is phenomenon whereby the energy of an

electromagnetic wave is distributed in a propagation

medium along several directions after meeting a

rough surface or heterogeneities with small

dimensions compared to the wavelength. After the

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wave have been emitted, a wave may follow paths

between the emitter and the receiver. Depending on

the nature of the obstacle that the waves encounter

during their propagation.

(vii) Absorption

When electromagnetic wave goes through something

they generally get weakened or dampened. The

amount of power in which they will lose is dependent

on their frequency and material. For the purpose of

practical wireless network.

Behavior of a Radio wave

Radio waves are characterized by the following

behaviors namely: [1]

 The longer the wavelength, the further it

goes

 The longer the wavelength, the better it

travels through and around things

 The shorter the wavelength, the more data it

can transport

Longer wavelength travel further because low

frequency sound waves in the atmosphere travel

farther than high frequency sound waves because

the short wavelength is more easily absorbed by

the molecules in the air

The longer the wavelength, the better it travels

through and around things. The distance a wave

can travel depends on the relationship between

the wavelength of the wave and the size of an

obstacle in its path of propagation. It is very

difficult to visualize waves moving through solid

object but this is the case with electromagnetic

waves. Longer wavelength waves tend to

penetrate object better than shorter wavelength

(therefore high frequency) waves. For instance,

FM-radio (88-108MHz) can travel through

building and other obstacles easily while shorter

waves such GSM phone operating at 900MHz-

1800MHz have a hard time penetrating building.

This effect is partly due to difference in power

level used for FM and GSM. This is mainly due

to the shorter wavelength of GSM signal.

Shorter waves can carry more data. The faster

the wave swings or beats, the more information

it can carry. Every beat or cycle could, for

example, be used to transport digital bit

The Propagation Environment

This is Geographical environment considered for a

description of the propagation of waves between a

transmitter and the receiver. Various environments

have a different impact on the radio waves. The radio

waves propagating through a medium through

scattering and absorption of the electromagnetic

energy. The efficiency of the interaction is related to

the amount of signal absorption. Changes in

propagation velocity due to this interaction results in

refraction of waves. [2]

This clearly shows that different atmosphere has a

different impact on the propagation of waves e.g.

presence of water vapour in the atmosphere results to

the well-reflected surface for radio signals.

How Do Radio Waves work?

Radio waves are basically frequencies that travel at

the speed of light and deliver information from

transmitters to receivers[4]

Antenna(aerial) which is a receiver, it's the metal

rod or dish that catches radio waves and turns them

into electrical signals feeding into something like a

radio, telephone or a telephone system. Antennas like

this are sometimes called receivers. A transmitter is a

different kind of antenna that does the opposite job to

a receiver: it turns electrical signals into radio waves

so they can travel sometimes thousands of kilometres

from the Earth or even into space and back. Antennas

and transmitters are the keys to virtually all forms of

modern telecommunication.

Fig 1.2 showing a Receiver dish

How antennas Works

The antenna is an electrical device which converts

electrical power into radio waves and vice versa. It is

usually used with the radio transmitter or radio

receivers. In transmission. a radio transmitter

supplies an electric current oscillating at radio

frequency to the antenna’s terminals, and the

antennae radiate the energy from the current as

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electromagnetic waves. In reception, an antenna

intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic

wave in order to produce a tiny voltage as its

terminal, that is applied to the receiver to be

amplified.

Transmitter and receiver antennas are often very

similar in design. For example, if you're using

something like a satellite phone that can send and

receive a video-telephone call to any other place on

Earth using space satellite, the signals you transmit

and receive all pass through a single satellite dish—a

special kind of antenna parabolic reflector.

transmitters and receivers look very different. TV or

radio broadcasting antennas are huge masts

sometimes stretching hundreds of meters/feet into the

air because they have to send powerful signals over

long distances. But you don't need anything that big

on your TV or radio at home: a much smaller antenna

will do the job fine.

Fig 1.3 showing how transmitter and receiver Works

Waves don’t always travel straight from

receivers to transmitters. They are dependent on what

kinds (frequencies) of waves we want to transmit,

how far we want to send them, and we want to do it.

There are various ways in which waves can travel.

[6]

(i) The line of Sight (Free space propagation)-

In a straight line- just like a beam of light.

In old fashioned long-distance telephone

network, microwaves were used to carry

calls this way between very high

communication towers

(ii) They can speed around the Earth’s

curvature (ground wave). AM (medium-

wave) radio tends to travels this way for

short-to-moderate distances. This explains

why we can hear radio signals beyond the

horizon (when the transmitter and receiver

are not within the sight of one another)

(iii) They can shoot up to the sky, bounce off

the ionosphere and then come back to the

ground again. This effect is more suitable

at night which explains why distant

(foreign) AM radio stations are much

easier to pick up in the evening. During the

day, waves shooting off the sky are

absorbed by the lower layer of the

ionosphere. At night this does not happen

instead, higher layer of ionosphere catches

the radio waves and flying them back to

earth. Giving us a sky mirror that can help

us carry radio waves over very long

distances.

Fig 1.4 Showing how waves travels

An antenna which uses a line of sight

communication needs to be mounted in the very

high tower.

APPLICATION OF RADIO WAVES

From the history of radio waves, the discovery of

radio waves resulted to many inventions which are

really relevant to this modern world. A vast number

of the population uses mobile phones, radio. Not only

are radio waves applied to media only but also they

are applied in various fields for instance in the

hospital, metrological stations.

Application of radio waves to media

Media have enjoyed a lot of benefits from radio

waves. Radio waves are predominantly used for

transmitting signals, enabling communication back

and forth from great distances. These waves can be

transmitted as far as out of space or short as several

millimetres.

Mobile Phones

Wireless phones, unlike a conventional phone that

uses wires and cable, uses radio signals that are

carried through the air. A radio signal transmission

system is made up of transmitters and receivers. Both

the transmitter and receiver have antennae that either

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launch(transmit) or collect (receive) radio waves. The

receiver does not produce any radio or

electromagnetic waves but receives and translates

radio signals of a specific type. A wireless phone has

a receiver and transmitter in one device. When a

person makes a call it is transmitted to the nearest

“base station” which receives and transmits a radio

signal in its area. The call is connected to the local

phone network and delivered by phone lines, using

ground-based antennae or radio signals if is being

transmitted to another wireless phone. The antennae

of a radio transmitter emit electromagnetic waves at a

specifically allocated frequency which contains

information such as voice or picture.

The information is encoded in radio waves. For

example, in the AM (amplitude modulation) radio,

the amplitude of the signal follows the change of the

pitch, whereas, in the FM (Frequency Modulation)

radio, the sound signals change the frequency of

radio waves

Fig 1.5 showing how radio signals are transmitted

from one wireless phone to another

Televisions and Radios

Radio waves have lower frequencies and longer

wavelengths than microwaves. They are used to

transmit television and radio programs. Television

uses higher frequencies than radio.

A radio program receiver does not need to be

directly in view of the transmitter to receive program

signals. For low-frequency radio waves, diffraction

can allow them to be received behind hills, although

repeater stations are often used to improve the quality

of the signals.

The lowest frequency radio waves are also

reflected from an electrically charged layer of the

upper atmosphere, called the Ionosphere. This means

that they can reach receivers that are not in the line of

sight because of the curvature of the Earth's surface.

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

Wi-Fi can be used to connect to the internet which

means you can learn information, communicate to

others, to play games. Wi-Fi uses radio waves to

transmit and receive information from one device to

another. Either from mobile phones or computers. A

computer’s wireless modem translates radio signal

into data to receive the information and transmits it

using an antenna or a cable. WI-FI is transmitted at a

frequency of 5GHZ, as this is a high frequency thus

information can be sent very quickly and without

interferences.

Bluetooth networking transmits data via low-

power radio waves. It communicates on a frequency

of between 2.402 GHz and 2.480 GHz, this frequency

band has been set aside by international agreement

for the use of industrial, scientific and medical

devices (ISM). Which is enabled by the radio waves.

Infrared

Infrared waves can send small packs of data

through invisible waves. Infrared signals require a

line of sight between the receiver and broadcaster in

order to function properly. This form of the radio

wave is cheap to produce but it is unreliable thus, as a

result, it's used mainly in television remote

communication and other transmissions of small data

packets.

Radar

They are used to identify objects, for use in boats

and also the speed of an object. Also, radar can be

used to map out an area. They achieve this by

sending out a radio wave and waiting for the signal to

be bounced back from the object. This is especially

useful if it is impossible to visually identify the speed

and distance of the object. This method is also used

with bats, which send out signals and sense for a

return vibration to know if there is an object it’s

flying path

GPS System

The Global Position System is a mean of locating

any point on the earth. The GPS system is made up of

24 NAVSTAR satellite and five ground station. The

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ground stations are responsible for keeping the

satellite in precise orbit. Each of the 24 satellites

transmits its own unique signal. The GPS unit has

stored in it those in it 24 separate “signatures” and

therefore knows the position of each satellite. By

measuring the distance to the at least four satellite,

each in its distinct orbit. Distance to each satellite is

measured simply by the time taken for a radio wave

to reach the GPS unit.

Radio Controlled toys

The transmitter sends a signal over a frequency to

the receiver in the toy. The main difference between

radio controlled and remote controlled toys have a

wire that connects controller and toy, radio controlled

toys are wireless always. Signals reach the controls

the car is similar to the radio created through the lab

session. Inside the toy, there is a circuit which

includes all the necessary equipment to pick up the

radio signals. The radio receiver consists of a crystal

that oscillates at the specific frequency, indicator and

an antenna.

Application of radio waves in Medicine

Magnetic Resonance Imaging(MRI)

Radio frequency(RF) energy have been used in

medical treatment for over a period of time. Radio

waves are used in MRI scans to give 3D images of

the body. The magnet in the scanner causes all the

proton in the body to align. A radio wave pulses

cause the proton to move out of alignment in

different directions, generating the 3D image and

giving the doctor the ability to look at tissue, bone

and fluid inside a patient. Once the radio waves are

turned off the proton realign.

Also, radio waves are used to transmit the pattern

of the heartbeat through the monitor at a patient’s

home to a nearby hospital. They have also used to

radio the condition of a patient from an ambulance to

a hospital.

Radio waves are used in medicine when

paramedics are dispatched to the scene where they

are needed. The hospital can tell the paramedic the

condition of the person so that the paramedic can

prepare a medical treatment kit.

Other applications

Telemetry

Telemetry is the process of making measurements

from a remote location and transmitting those

measurements to the receiving equipment. An

Example of a modern telemetry application is the use

of input device called transducer to measure

information concerning an astronaut’s vital signs i.e.

heartbeat, blood pressure, body temperature during a

manned space flight. The transducer takes this

information and converts it into an electrical impulse

which is then beamed to the space monitoring station

on earth.

Advantages of Radio Waves

(i)For radio waves is that it is able to bounce off the

ionosphere (a region in the earth atmosphere) so it

could travel around the world. It is a cheap form of

communication and it travel through air so no wire is

needed for communication

Disadvantages of Radio Waves

(i)They cannot transmit a lot of data simultaneously

because they are low frequency

(ii) Continued exposure to large amount of radio

waves can cause health disorder like leukaemia and

cancer.

(iii) Radio waves have the longest wavelengths and

lowest frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum

thus they take a while to transfer information.

SUMMARY

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic

radiation with wavelength in the electromagnetic

spectrum longer than infrared light [8]. They are

propagating from one medium to another i.e. space or

air. Radio waves travels at a speed of light and they

have the following phenomenon exhibited i.e.

refraction, reflection, absorption, polarization and

scattering. [1].

Radio waves have a certain behavior whereby the

Longer wavelength travel further because low

frequency sound waves in the atmosphere travel

farther than high frequency sound waves because the

short wavelength is more easily absorbed by the

molecules in the air, the longer the wavelength the

better it travels around things and also Shorter waves

can carry more data. The faster the wave swings or

beats, the more.[2]

Radio waves works the following ways,Radio

waves are basically frequencies that travel at the

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Annual Physics 200 Conference

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speed of light and deliver information from

transmitters to receivers. Antenna(aerial) which is a

receiver, it's the metal rod or dish that catches radio

waves and turns them into electrical signals feeding

[6] Antennas like this are sometimes called receivers.

A transmitter is a different kind of antenna that does

the opposite job to a receiver: it turns electrical

signals into radio waves so they can travel sometimes

thousands of kilometres from the Earth or even into

space and back are the keys to virtually all forms of

modern telecommunication.

Waves don’t always travel straight from the

transmitter to the receiver instead depending on how

far the frequency are to be transmitted they can travel

through line of sight

Radio Waves Wave Length They have

wavelengths of approximately 103m. Frequency

They have a frequency of approximately 108Hz.

Radio waves are mainly used for communication due

to their low frequency. Important Uses

Radio waves are mainly used for communication.

The main purpose of radio waves is to convey

information from one place to another through the

intervening media. Properties of the wave:

Wavelength, Frequency, Harmonics, since radio

waves are transverse waves, they have the properties

of transverse waves.

The following are some of the apparatus which uses

the radio waves namely; television cables, satellites,

cell phones, Two-way radios, Cordless telephones,

Wired computers, televisions, remote controls, CD

players and other digital equipment.

Artificially-generated radio Waves Artificially

generated radio waves are made by different

transmitters.[5] Naturally-occurring radio Waves

Naturally-occurring radio waves are made by

astronomical objects, such as lightning, stars and

sparks.[5] Physical or health effects on living things

Fears about mobile phones, telecommunication

cables etcetera are generally misguided.

Studies conducted have shown that radio waves do

not have any harmful effects on living things, except

when they are produced in extremely high amounts.

Some of the limitation of radio waves is, they

cannot transmit a lot of data simultaneously because

they are of low frequency also continued exposure to

large amount of radio waves can cause health

disorder like leukaemia and cancer.

Some of the applications of radio waves in our day

to day life is that they are used in media i.e. television

and radio station, they are used in communication i.e.

wireless mobile phones, they are used also in wireless

technologies i.e. Wi-Fi and Bluetooth which are also

used in the convey of information from one device to

another without any solid medium. Also in medicine,

they are used in magnetic resonance imaging and also

infrared rays are used in hospital. Other areas where

radio waves are applied is ship industry where radar

technology are used to determine obstacles in the

way this technique is used in bat to determine

whether there is obstacle along its path

RADIOWAVES AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN MODERN WORLD

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[3].Lavergnat, J., Sylvain, M., & Nelson, J. C. C. (2000). Radio wave propagation: Principles and techniques. New York: Berkeley: University

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[4].Sizun, H., & Sizun, H. (2004). Radio wave propagation for telecommunication applications. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg

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[5]v. Rass, A. (2003). Radio waves For Radio Waves &Radio Engineering. Artech House.

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[7]Lilensten, J., Delorme, P., Samouillan, S., Engel, E., & Barthélémy, M. (2005). Influence of the thermosphere on electromagnetic waves

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[8]Radio wave (2017). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave

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