Sexual Assault In The Military

Running head: SEXUAL ASSAULT IN THE MILITARY 1

Sexual Assault in the Military

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SEXUAL ASSAULT IN THE MILITARY 2

Sexual Assault in the Military

Introduction

Sexual assault has been described by the United States Department of Defense as any

sexual related contact, advances or behavior which occurs without the consent of the victim or

recipient. The facts worsen the controversy surrounding the exact definition of sexual assault that

different States across the United States has their different definition. Most of these states define

it according to where and how it occurred. It is worth noting that this menace is also present in

the disciplined forces such as the military where numerous cases have been reported. Sexual

assault in the military is increasingly becoming an issue of concern as the number of women

reporting assault cases are on the rise. The manner in which this vice is occurring across all

sectors of the society shows that it has reached a dangerous level such that it has become an issue

of public conversation.

The general definition of sexual assault according to United States Department of

Defense encompasses three crucial aspects of attempted rape, rape, and fondling. Attempted

raped involves contact with genitalia or any other intimate body part of the recipients. Rape is a

penetration crime of the recipient’s body either through the vagina, anus or the mouth. On the

other hand, fondling describes caressing recipient’s body parts such as breasts and buttocks. The

nature of the military calls for men and women to operate together either in combat or their

workstations. This paper shall dwell on the concept of sexual assault in the military by focusing

on the predisposing factors, theories, and steps taken to eliminate the vice.

Causes of Sexual Assault

i) Gender Stereotypes

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Gender stereotypes are a common phenomenon in the military as a patriarchal structure

characterizes it. Here, a significant amount of emphasis is concentrated on masculine ideals, risk-

taking, dominance notions, aggression, and self-sufficiency. The military has a long history of

male dominance with masculine interactions characterized by control, competition and

dominance contribute significantly to sexual assault cases (Castro, Kintzle, Schuyler, Lucas and

Warner, 2015). The full acceptance of sexual assault towards women is attributed to the fact that

the military is associated with hyper-masculine beliefs contributes to the occurrence of a

negative attitude towards women.

It is imperative to note that it is not only women who are affected by sexual assault but

also homosexuals. The culture of homophobia makes gay and lesbian soldiers more vulnerable to

sexual attacks. Instilling fear and stigma are the strategies used in the force to deter victims of

sexual assault from reporting cases of being explicitly assaulted the male recipients. Masculinity

also comes into play when qualified women and weak men are viewed as a threat by hyper-

masculine men. Therefore, they regularly use sexual language and behavior as a way of

affirming their masculinity (Castro, Kintzle, Schuyler, Lucas and Warner, 2015). To women,

cases of sexual assault occur in various forms such as recruits being called ‘faggots,' the

discriminative judgment regarding competency, over scrutiny and subject to jealousy.

ii) Entitlement

Due to masculinity, hyper-masculine men may feel entitled to regular sex which in turn

creates a direct correlation between masculinity and rape-related behaviors and attitudes. Such

kind of men often regards sex as one of the critical roles of women. It should be noted that

entitlement is attributed to the patriarchal societal structure where women are required to be

submissive to men, and that sex is a man' right that women should readily provide. Entitlement is

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facilitated by the acceptance of issues such as sex-role stereotyping rape and hostility towards

women. Entitlement is further worsened by the fact that the military places more emphasis on

objectification in that during training, the soldiers are trained to limit their empathy and objectify

other human beings as a way of making their work easier explicitly killing (Bouffard, 2010). The

application of objectification in normal circumstances creates a sense of entitlement that makes

perpetration of sexual assault easier.

Historical and religious influence is also closely tied to entitlement where women were

regarded as rewards for soldiers when they encounter victory in battle. In the ancient times,

women were used sexual resources that men were entitled and also as a source of morale where

soldier hoped to capture women in the territories the conquered. For instance, it is imperative to

note that some countries provide the military personnel with sex workers as a reward and token

of friendship (Hunter, 2007). In combat, a soldier’s ability to rape and kill is regarded as a sign

of power. From this assertion, it is fair to deduce that the acceptance of violence in the military

as a strategy to attaining desired goals creates a conducive environment for sexual assault.

iii) Past Experiences

Military personnel with a history of sexual assault are more likely to experience

victimization than those that have not. According to the Department of Defense, 6% of male and

30% of female personnel have reported being sexually harassed during their childhood and that

for women victims, there is a likelihood of two and a half times of them being re-victimized

during their service. From a critical analysis of this finding, it is evident that the military

personnel experience higher cases of re-victimization than the civilians with the women being

the most affected. The increased vulnerability to re-victimization is associated with the

behavioral and emotional consequences associated with the previous abuse (Castro et al., 2015).

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Such outcomes include blaming self for the assault, interpersonal difficulties, and emotional

dysregulation.

iv) Cultural Acceptance

The most painful moment for a sexual assault victim is the response offered by people

around them. The military has a characteristic of using a rigid chain of command which to

victims is viewed as a code of silence that prevents them from reporting or seeking help. The

failure to find help is often a personal decision made by the victim for fear of negative

repercussions or nothing being done at all. The rigid chain of command employed in the military

goes military personnel to suffer the most consequences of sexual assault that civilians who have

the liberty to report the matter to the police or seek help from friends and family. According to

the Department of Defense report, retaliation is the most common consequence of reporting

cases of sexual assault (Castro et al., 2015). It is saddening to note that further findings of the

report indicate that two-thirds of the perpetrators did not face any charges.

Blame, rejection, and invasion of privacy are the primary deterrence to reporting of

sexual assault cases. The victims are often blamed for either acting in a manner that created an

impression to the perpetrators or their failure to perform assigned duties. The victims are also

faced with incredulous questioning which is followed by their seniors refusing to accept the

victims’ reports thus blocking any attempt to get justice. In the recent past, there have been cases

of the military using psychological diagnoses such as personality and adjustment disorder

diagnosis to discredit sexual assault claims, especially for male victims. Such acts by senior

officers of the military increases the victims’ vulnerability to suffering from conditions such as

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in worst cases, its creates victim-blaming sexual misconduct and

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discrimination as a cultural norm of the military (Castro et al., 2015). In turn, this facilitates

increases in cases of sexual assault and limits victim’s ability to report when they are assaulted.

v) Consumption of Alcohol

Alcohol consumption is a part of the military culture especially taken among themselves

where alcohol is known to increase risks of sexual violence. According to a study conducted by

the Department of Defense, the majority of sexual assault cases occurred when the perpetrators

were under the influence of alcohol. The contribution of alcohol to sexual violence is attributed

to the ability to stimulate aggression, sexual desire and risk-taking without forgetting

misinterpretation of the responses given by their victims and relating them to wanting forced sex

(Department of Defense, 2013). Alcohol may also create a feeling of sexual dominance and

aggression towards women.

Re-victimization Theory

According to this theory, victims of victimization suffer from emotional and behavioral

consequences that increase the likelihood of them being re-victimized in the future. The

increased risk is attributed to the victims blaming themselves for the assault they suffered or

creating a notion where they take sexual charge as part of the lives. Such beliefs limit their

ability to seek help or justice as they feel that it is part of their life. Victims who underwent

sexual assault during or before the onset of their adolescent stage as the ones who suffer more

consequences that adults who face the vice. Of all the victims, women are the most affected by

re-victimization since they encounter negative responses to the sexual assaults they suffer

(Tusher, 2007). For instance, they are blamed for the attacks on the basis that they encouraged

the perpetrators to commit the act or they were at the ‘wrong place at the wrong time.'

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The theory further asserts that sexual assault during childhood is a significant predictor of

future victimization, especially for women. Women who suffered sexual assault during

childhood and did not receive adequate psychological care had a higher chance of facing re-

victimization while servicing in the military. However, the percentage is much lower when

compared to those who meet sexual assault during their childhood and have been incarcerated as

they are exposed to sexual violence. A more significant percentage of sexual abuse cases among

women occur during their adolescent period majority of whom do not report when they are

assaulted. Furthermore, the background of the victim determines their likelihood or reporting the

assault. That is, victims from poor environments such as the orphans or the homeless are less

likely to report or seek assistance when they are sexually assaulted than those from a higher

social class (Tusher, 2007). Therefore, military personnel who emanated from poor backgrounds

and have previously been attacked have a higher probability of being re-victimized

Routine Activity Theory

It is a theory formulated by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson in 1979 and regards

crime as an event and aims to identify patterns in criminal activities and a macro level by

analyzing the variations in crime trends. The theory focuses on the analysis of the distribution of

criminal events with the aim of developing a frame for conducting individualized crime analysis

while ignoring the motive of the offender. In criminal investigations, the theory is used to devise

policies to deter the elements contributing to the occurrence of the crime (Miró, 2014). Focusing

on sexual assault in the military, it involves analysis of the events adding to the existence of the

assault as a way of devising measures aimed at providing a more secure environment.

According to Cohen, the transformations occurring in the society today are the major

predisposing factors to the occurrence of crime. For instance, increased participation of women

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in labor force such as the military exposes them to possible offenders while men leave their

homes unprotected. For this reason, it is evident that the nature of the military where women stay

away from their spouses for more extended periods while in battle and the men leaving their

wives and children without protection increases their vulnerability to potential sex offenders.

Most scholars such as Cohen attribute the increased cases of sexual assaults in the military for

the more extended periods the officers take away from their loved ones (Miró, 2014). From an

in-depth analysis of the theory, it can be deduced that the environment in which the military

personnel operates contributes significantly to increased cases of sexual assault.

Prevention of Sexual Assault in the Military

Limiting the military senior official’s power specifically final say matters relating to

sexual assault is crucial in eliminating the vice in the service. The significant influence that

should be limited should be the clemency power thus giving military courts more power to

determine the cases. This would be a step forward in dealing with sexual assault matter since the

victim’s chance of getting justice for the perpetrator. Furthermore, the military commander's

powers to determine the credibility of assault cases should also be limited in such as a way that

the role is taken up by the lawyers. The lawyers should be assisted by a team of independent

investigators would assess assault cases and determine if necessary actions should be taken.

Enactment of punitive measures for the perpetrators as a way of determining them from

engaging in the action. For instance, passing a legislation stating that convictions for military

officers for sexual assault should result in their immediate loss of employment. The current

punishments put in place which involves lengthy investigations and service a leave seem to be

exciting cases of sexual assault in the force. As a preventive measure, extensive scrutiny of the

SEXUAL ASSAULT IN THE MILITARY 9

military officer should be carried out before the appointment of promotion to avoid putting

offenders in positions that would enable them to advance the vice.

Focusing on the sexual assault victims, proper mechanisms should be put in place to

ensure that they have easier access to help justice mainly. This measure should be incorporated

into benefits such as enabling access to disability benefits for the victims. Provision of access to

disability benefits is necessary are there are also retired veterans who are suffering from sexual

trauma from assaults they received while still in service. It is imperative to note that availability

of mechanisms for more original reporting cases of sexual assault may act as a deterrence to

potential sexual offenders facilitating efforts to reduce the vice in the force.

Conclusion

Sexual assault is a growing issue of concern attributed to social stereotyping of women

and masculinity amongst men that traces back from the ancient period. The vice can contribute

significantly to negative emotional and behavioral consequences to the victims which may end

up to permanent conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Access to justice is the major

problem facing sexual assault victims partly due to fear of being blamed for the assault and

deliberate obstruction to justice by their seniors. However, measures to curb the menace should

be aimed at facilitating the victims' access to justice and limiting their commander's power on

matters relating to sexual assault. It should be noted that enacting of this measures requires

careful consideration and planning to prevent disruption of the normal operations in the military,

especially the following the hierarchy. All in all, sexual assault in the military needs to be routed

out to prevent further suffering of the victims.

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References

Bouffard, L. A. (2010). Exploring the utility of entitlement in understanding sexual aggression.

Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(5), 870-879.

Castro, C. A., Kintzle, S., Schuyler, A. C., Lucas, C. L., & Warner, C. H. (2015). Sexual assault

in the military. Current psychiatry reports, 17(7), 54.

Department of Defense, (2013). Annual report on sexual assault in the military. Washington,

D.C.

Hunter, M. (2007). Honor Betrayed: Sexual abuse in America's military. Barricade Books

Incorporated.

Miró, F. (2014). Routine activity theory. The Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology.

Poister Tusher, C. (2007). Revictimization: Advancing theory and method.

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