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Running head: RESILIENCE AND COLLEGE RETENTION 1

Literature Review

The Nature of Resilience

Several empirical studies on resilience have been conducted over the last couple of years.

Following these studies, experts have expressed different opinions regarding the nature and

importance of resilience. Resilience has been associated with the ability of an individual to adapt

to adversity (Becker, Cicchetti & Luthar, 2000; Fleming and Ledogar, 2008; Jones et al. 2012).

To this extent, many scholars agree that resilience is a dynamic process that encompasses

positive adaptation to significant adversity (Becker, Cicchetti and Luthar, 2000). In other words,

resilience is characterized by an individual’s capacity to flexibly adapt to changing demands of

stressful situations and, therefore, their ability to “bounce back” from negative emotional

experiences. Resilience is closely related to optimism, zest, curiosity, openness to new

experiences, positive emotionality, sustained competence under stress, and energy among other

positive traits (Becker, Cicchetti and Luthar, 2000; Fleming and Ledogar, 2008).

While resilience has traditionally been considered a characteristic of the individual

(Becker, Cicchetti & Luthar, 2000; Jones et al. 2012, more recently, scholars have associated it

with entire communities (Fleming & Ledogar, 2008). In their review of the literature on the

scientific construct of resilience and its evolution, Fleming and Ledogar (2008) focused on

aboriginal resilience. The scholars analyzed different theories and perspectives on resilience and

its relation to risk. According to the scholars, one qualifying condition that many researchers

rely on to qualify resilience is the presence of demonstrable substantial risk or stress. The

researchers analyzed three general categories of resilience models; challenge, protective and

compensatory. The researchers noted that the challenge model holds that high and low levels of

exposure to risk factors are associated with negative results while moderate levels of the risk

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result in less negative results. The protective model on the other hand holds that the negative

results of a risk are reduced or moderated by resources or assets. On its part, the compensatory

model suggests that a resilience factor and a risk factor operate in opposite directions. The

researchers concluded that postmodern theories of resilience are especially appealing given that

they characterize resilience as a response to adversity, rather than label people as “damaged

goods” (Fleming and Ledogar, 2008).

The nature and importance of resilience to the individual has been discussed by many

analysts (Becker, Cicchetti and Luthar, 2000; Fleming and Ledogar, 2008; Jones et al. 2012). In

their study, which involved the review of 169 literatures on resilience, Becker, Cicchetti and

Luthar (2000) concluded that in spite of the instability, theoretical concerns, and differences in

the functioning of the domains associated with resilience, the subject was no construct of

dubious scientific value but rather one that needed to be given more scholarly attention. The fact

that many experts consider resilience a scientific construct has led them to face another challenge

- how to measure resilience. As a result, several attempts have been made to develop scales for

the measurement of the subject. One of the scales that have been developed in this regard is the

Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). To evaluate the effectiveness of the scale in measuring

resilience, Hartley (2012) conducted a survey targeting general population students and students

drawn specifically from college mental health offices. The study, which involved multi-group

comparisons of the Resilience Scale, revealed that the scale presented a strong and reliable

measure of resilience and was, therefore, effective in measuring the construct.

Resilience and Mental Health

The relationship between resilience and mental health has been analyzed by many

experts. Most studies focusing on resilience and mental health have indicated a strong

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relationship between the two (Jones et al., 2012; Hartley, 2011; Jordans, Song & Tol, 2013;

Fredrickson & Tugade, 2004). A study conducted by Caltabiano and Moorhouse (2007), for

example, revealed that adults who portrayed more resilient qualities were less likely to

experience depression even after a long period of job hunting. The study also revealed that

individuals who were more resilient as measured by the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-

RISC) tended to be more assertive in their job search, which in effect increased their chances of

getting employed and enhanced their coping skills. Some of the qualities that the researchers

linked to resilience in this study included determination, resourcefulness, independence and self

reliance.

A study by Jones et al. (2012) aimed at examining the relation between resilience and

healthier psychological profiles featuring 1239 ICU nurses drawn from different parts of the

United States revealed that nurses who had high resilience were significantly associated with

lower cases of posttraumatic stress disorder, burnout syndrome, anxiety and depression. In

education, the importance of resilience has been demonstrated by Allen (1992) and Hartley

(2011). The survey conducted by Hartley (2011) involving 605 undergraduate students from two

Midwestern universities showed a significant positive correlation between intra- and inter-

personal resilience factors and mental health. The study further revealed that variances in GPA,

achievement, and aptitude could be explained by factors related to intrapersonal resilience.

The findings of the study by Hartley (2011) resonate well with the results another study

by Fredrickson and Tugade (2004). The experimental study that featured 57 students undertaking

their undergraduate studies at the University of Michigan involved subjecting the participants to

a stressful condition. During and soon after the experiment, the participants’ cardiovascular data

was taken and recorded. The participants then completed a self report on their emotional states

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and state of resilience. The results of the study indicated that positive emotions seemed to help

individuals who were resilient in the quick recovery of their cardiovascular states following

negative emotional arousal. The results of the study further showed that participants who were

highly resilient perceived the stressful task they were to undertake as less threatening compared

to their less resilient counterparts. In agreement with Caltabiano and Moorhouse (2007) and

Jones et al. (2012), Fredrickson and Tugade (2004) concluded that positive emotions are vital in

several ways. The researchers further concluded that resilient individuals are better placed in

coping with stressful experiences (Fredrickson and Tugade (2004).

Citing an increase in mental health problems among children and adolescents living in

areas that are marred with conflict, Jordans, Song, and Tol (2013) conducted a systematic review

of literature to investigate the relation between resilience and mental health. The researchers

reviewed a total of 53 qualitative, quantitative and mixed method studies. The study analyzed the

subject in light of protective, promotive, socio-cultural and other factors to conclude that

resilience is a complex and dynamic process that is affected by both context variables and time.

While the results of this study are in tandem with those of several studies (Morales, 2014;

Hartley, 2011; Xu, 2016) with respect to the importance of resilience, it goes further to suggest

that interventions that are resilience-focused should be designed specifically for particular

contexts, rather than being universally modeled (Jordans, Song, and Tol, 2013).

Resilience and College Retention

The participation and good performance of students is of great interest to universities and

colleges across the world. While this is the case, it is a fact that the participation of students from

minority groups such as Black students in American universities has been characterized by

periods of growth and decline. In this regard, Allen (1992) conducted a study aimed at evaluating

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the experiences of Black undergraduate students who attended predominantly white universities

and colleges and those who attended historically black universities and colleges. The

quantitative study involved a mailed survey of 1800 randomly selected Black undergraduate

students from different universities. The study results showed that Black students attending

predominantly white colleges had lower academic achievement compared to their counterparts

attending historically Black colleges and universities. The study also showed that those students

who held the belief that they had made the correct college choice reported to have greater social

involvement compared to their counterparts who believed otherwise. Based on these results,

Allen (1992) concluded that informal elements such as racial composition are important

predictors of student outcomes. The results of the study implied that the social-psychological

context of a college has a profound effect on student outcomes. Considering the results of this

and other studies, experts have noted that more studies should be conducted to identify factors

that could encourage college retention and reduce attrition (Hartley, 2011; Xu, 2016). One of the

subjects that have been suggested for study in this regard is resilience.

The relationship between resilience and student retention and persistence has been a

subject of great interest to many scholars with several studies revealing a positive relationship

between resilience and student retention and academic persistence (Bain, Garza, & Kupczynski,

2014; Walton, 2010). That resilience is an important factor in increasing college completion

rates and reducing attrition is confirmed by Morales (2014) and Xu (2016). In his study on how

students from poor backgrounds have managed to excel in spite of facing stressors that have

served to derail other poor students, Morales (2014) engaged 31 participants all of whom were

academically resilient students from economically poor backgrounds and who belonged to an

ethnic minority group to three separate semi-structured interviews. After analyzing the data

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collected, resilience emerged as one of the themes associated with student retention. In his study

on the factors that affect the persistence of students majoring in science, technology, engineering

and mathematics (STEM) courses, Xu (2016) concluded that improving teaching quality and the

instituting measures aimed at stimulating students’ interest in these courses are potential ways of

reducing attrition rates.

According to a study by Habley and McClanahan (2004) college attrition can be

attributed to institutional and personal characteristics. While this is the case, personal

characteristics such as lack of resilience tend to be the main factor behind attrition, at least

according to most college representatives. Another study by Bain, Garza, and Kupczynski

(2014), which involved interviews with Hispanic students from one American university,

revealed no significant difference between first and continuing generation students with regard to

the combined effects of persistence, self efficacy, and resilience. Although several studies have

linked mental health and persistence, a few have not established a statistically significant

relationship between the two variables. In his study aimed at identifying the mental health issues

that were faced by single parent students and analyze how these issues affected their persistence

in and achievement of higher education, Landgraf (2015) conducted anonymous online surveys

that more specifically targeting single parent students at the University of Minnesota - Twin

Cities. While the survey, which relied on opportunistic sampling, showed no significant

relationship between role conflict and mental health, the researcher noted that that a rise in role

conflict could lead to student attrition.

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References

Allen, W. (1992). The color of success: African–American college student outcomes at

predominantly white and historically black public colleges and universities. Harvard

Educational Review 62(1), 26-44.

Bain, S., Garza, K., & Kupczynski, L. (2014). Resiliency, self-efficacy, and persistence of

college seniors in higher education. Research in Higher Education Journal 26, 1-19.

Becker, B., Cicchetti, D., & Luthar, S. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation

and guidelines for future work. Child Development 71(3), 543–562.

Caltabiano, M. & Moorhouse, A., (2007). Resilience and unemployment: exploring risk and

protective influences for the outcome variables of depression and assertive job searching.

Journal of Employment Counseling 44, 115-125.

Fleming, J., & Ledogar,

R. (2008). Resilience, an evolving concept: A review of literature

relevant to aboriginal research. Pimatisiwin 6(2), 7–23.

Fredrickson, B., & Tugade, M. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce

back from negative emotional experiences. Journal of Personal Social Psychology, 86(2),

320–333. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.320

Habley, W., & McClanahan, R. (2004). What works in student retention? - Four-year public

institutions. Iowa: ACT, Inc.

Hartley, M. (2011) Examining the relationships between resilience, mental health, and academic

persistence in undergraduate college students. Journal of American College Health 59(7),

596-604.

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Hartley, M. (2012). Assessing and Promoting Resilience: An additional tool to address the

increasing number of college students with psychological problems. Journal of College

Counseling 15(1), 37–51. doi: 10.1002/j.2161-1882.2012.00004.x

Jones, J., McFann, K., Mealer, M., Moss, M., Newman, J., & Rothbaum, B. (2012). The

presence of resilience is associated with a healthier psychological profile in ICU nurses:

Results of a national survey. Int J Nurs Stud, 49(3), 292–299.

Jordans, M., Song, S., & Tol, W. (2013). Annual research review: Resilience and mental health

in children and adolescents living in areas of armed conflict – a systematic review of

findings in low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Child Psychology and

Psychiatry 54(4), 445–460.doi: 10.1111/jcpp.12053

Landgraf, L.(2015). “Retention and mental health: College and single parents”, Master of Social

Work Clinical Research Papers, Paper 480. Retrieved from

http://sophia.stkate.edu/msw_papers/480

Morales, E. (2014). Learning from Success: How original research on academic resilience

informs what college faculty can do to increase the retention of low socioeconomic status

students. International Journal of Higher Education 3(3), 92-102.

doi:10.5430/ijhe.v3n3p92

Walton, S. (2010). “Exploring the relationship between resilience and Learning styles as

predictors of academic Persistence in engineering”. Texas A&M University.

Xu, Y. (2016). Attention to retention: exploring and addressing the needs of college students in

STEM majors. Journal of Education and Training Studies 4(2), 67-76.

doi:10.11114/jets.v4i2.1147

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