Spatial And Mathematical Ability

Running head: SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES 1

Spatial and Mathematical Ability Differences

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SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES 2

Spatial and Mathematical Ability Differences

Introduction

Sex difference has over the years been linked with cognitive and an affective

predictor of both spatial and mathematical abilities. There is a growing concern in the United

States over its ability to maintain its status as the leading science and technology status owing

to the scarcity of highly experienced scientists and mathematicians. Furthermore, their

situation is complicated further due to the growing disproportion in the labor force. A case in

which women are unequally represented in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and

Mathematics (STEM) careers (Moss-Racusin, Dovidio, Brescoll, Graham, & Handelsman,

2012). Most of the research conducted to point out early education stages as the cause of

these disparities (Muller, Stage, & Kinzie, 2001; Sanchez & Wiley, 2010).

According to (Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990), gender disparities in cognitive and

affective factors shown in mathematics performances originate in middle school to which

they later affect future STEM careers. Another explanation given by (Spelke, 2005a) on the

gap in STEM careers is the fact that there are few women displaying the talents required in

the field. Finally, the sex disparities in Spatial and mathematical differences can be attributed

to the genetic base affecting a smaller intrinsic attitude in these subjects by women.

Biological differences in men and women in the field of science and Mathematics has been

extensively researched on, and this paper seeks to show the extent to which gender

differences affect academic performances in mathematics and science fields.

To properly understand the differences in spatial and mathematical ability influences,

we need to understand the dynamics of the cognitive and affective process that may correlate

performances in girls and boys. It is imperative to understand how academics are affected by

the gender differences across different age groups from school going students to college

SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES 3

students. Despite advances in the modernized western world, social, cultural influences still

act as a perception of the role of gender difference and gender roles. Both men and women

distinguish themselves by psychological and behavioral predisposition linked with biological

functions. Due to this factor, women and men react differently towards certain tasks and have

a difference in choices made. To this effect, masculinity and feminism come into play leading

to different behaviors which widen the disparities found in academics. This has created

numerous stereotypes believing men are more superior to women in STEM careers and life

generally as shown in an article by (Fradera, 2017).

In her research, (Marini & Greenberger, 1978) indicate that one of the major

influences in sex difference is the social and cultural variations. She reveals that biological

differences in men and women play a part in their behaviors and roles. However, the major

contributors are social aspects. This is supported by (Baker & Jones, 1993) who indicates the

social arrangement has created a thinking based on cognitive abilities for men and women

which compound to the notion to which men and women are limited to certain tasks.

Consequently, these beliefs have led to a superiority for men over women which

extends to spatial and mathematical studies. Teachers will tend to treat boys and girls in

different proportions when teaching mathematics and sciences. It is due to these factors that

men have found themselves performing much better than women in classroom settings.

Teachers tend to focus more on the boy child as opposed to the girl child thus allocating more

resources and time on them (Baker & Jones, 1993). Similarly, teachers will give girl students

the notion that failing in mathematics and sciences is okay as they can perform better in other

subjects. Ultimately, it creates a social constraint to which men become superior in sciences

and mathematics fields and the resulting STEM careers.

SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES 4

The education system has been influenced by the societal constraints and has led to

the encouragement of women being encouraged to take up subjects and courses that align

with nurturing careers such as nursing, secretarial or teaching. Such careers are related to the

perceived society roles for women which is to take care of their families. Meanwhile, the men

are left to occupy scientific and technological fields as they are regarded intellectually

superior to handle complex mathematical and scientific problems and lead the way in

innovativeness (Hoffman, Gneezy, & List, 2011). Despite these, there has been a decrease in

this disparity between genders in the recants year. There is still a long way to go to change

these differences as there still exist gender stratification even in the high school level

(Entwisle, Alexander, & Olson, 2004a; Leahey & Guo, 2001).

In research to prove the extent of gender differences found in mathematics

capabilities especially in reasoning and geometry, (Leahey & Guo, 2001) reveals that there is

an advantage for boys attending college. In the research, boys were found out to perform

better than girls in mathematics in high school and college levels. High school mathematics

has been researched on due to its importance in academic choices in college which ultimately

affect career professions. In fact, boys performed better in high school mathematical SATs

than their counterparts. Likewise, the American College Test mathematics is well performed

by the boys. Leahey also reveals that the gender difference in mathematical performance has

affected the occupational segregation and the gender socialization found in the American

public sector.

(Entwisle, Alexander, & Olson, 2004b) Argues that the inequalities experienced faced

in schools have caused the career and profession disparities in the country. They offer an

insight into these differences by attributing it to the experiences faced by both boys and girls

creating the differences in mathematics performance. In general, they state that the school

SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES 5

environment is responsible for the subject disparities. They provide evidence based on a

comparison between elementary and high school experience and the level of influence from

teachers, parents, other students, and the administration. Parents are guilty of pressuring their

children to take on specific subjects in school while influencing their choices in career. As

noted earlier, teachers are also responsible for the disparities in science and mathematics

performances while peer pressure from other students has attributed to students choosing

these subjects and their resultant performances.

Continuing from (Entwisle et al., 2004a) research, it goes to show that experiences

from the school and the neighborhood resources have a direct correlation towards student’s

mathematical capabilities. The authors reveal that environmental factors attribute to these

disparities stating that boys are more responsive to neighborhood resources than the girls, that

is, they develop various skills. These skills help boys to develop mathematical competency

that girls would find hard to apply. The time spent by boys in the said neighborhoods creates

a gap between them and the girls thus growing from the surroundings than the girls. The

society seems to pen up more for the boys to explore while limiting the girl's opportunities.

Supporting this notion is (Deutsch, 2007; West & Zimmerman, 1987) who explains

that the social culture has allowed boys to explore the environment more than the girls fully.

Traditionally, boys have had a better exploration of the surrounding environment that has

helped them develop spatial and mathematical abilities over the years. To fully exploit spatial

abilities, one has to practice more often, and exploration of the surroundings can only

improve on this. On the other hand, girls are limited to such opportunities and are confined to

their homes which limits their abilities to perform well in spatial and mathematical subjects.

(Leahey & Guo, 2001) Share the same perspective on the difference in mathematical

SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES 6

capabilities in women and men. They support that men have an environmental advantage

over women in spatial and mathematical skills.

Another explanation towards the disparities is the cognitive differences between

genders. The cognitive differences found in men and women seem to benefit men more in

their application in mathematics than in women. These cognitive abilities allow men to have

a better focus on objects which enables them to gain knowledge of mechanical systems easily

(Spelke, 2005b). Spelke also believes that men have a superior spatial reasoning and

mathematical capabilities than women. Also, the variability of male cognition attributes to the

superiority in mathematical abilities.

Another reasoning behind the abilities in men to perform better in mathematics is due

to the predisposition to have an early mechanical interaction with objects. In women, this

inclination tends to lead them to learn about the emotional interaction in people. A feat that

can be seen during the early school life as opposed to during infantry. Children will lean

towards their assigned toys, and this leads to their socialization behaviors later in life.

Additionally, a study conducted by (Cobb, Stevens-Long, & Goldstein, 1982) showed how

assigning toys to different sexes through media affected their choices in life further showing

more causes for disparities in cognitive thinking.

If children experiences were to be offered equally to young boys and girls, equal skills

and knowledge in spatial and mathematics would be gained as seen by (Gallagher &

Kaufman, 2005). This reveals a rather complex situation to which cognition may be related

mathematical performances in gender differences. It provides evidence that biological factors

may have no factor in the mathematical differences but rather an interplay between

environmental factors and biological capabilities (Williams, Birke, & Bendelow, 2003). Due

to this interplay, one could explain how cognitive and skills abilities in mathematics may

SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES 7

vary in boys and girls. However, it is the society that has a major say in the underlying

differences found in men and women in mathematics performances.

Differential development of cognitive behaviors can be attributed to the social

interactions experienced by boys and girls a notion supported by (Halpern & LaMay, 2000;

Williams et al., 2003) and their effect on mathematics. Williams et al., support that there are

preferential differences in boys and girls in the society which includes homes, schools and in

the workplace. Due to cultural differences, gender roles become more exposed leading to

further disparities in spatial and mathematical differences. (West & Zimmerman, 1987)

Attribute gender roles to personal accomplishments that affect mathematical abilities in life.

The idea of placing gender has provided men and women an ability to build up competency

and productiveness based on social constraints. Following the social structure, men and

women can develop interactions, achievements, and perceptions related to social

complexities. These influences inadvertently cause women to pursue careers outside

mathematical and spatial fields. These social complications affect how men and women view

themselves in regards to career choices.

Conclusion

It has been the social constructs that have led to perception found in the disparities in

mathematics and science performances. The social perception of what one is expected in life

whether male or female has created a major disparity in spatial and mathematics

performance. As we grow both physically and mentally, so does our perception of gender

based on the social constructs. The differences in spatial and mathematical have been

attributed to various factors in this paper, but ultimately, they all fall under the social

influences including cultural factors. These factors are compounded further by environmental

factors which makes all these differences possible. Thus, for these inequalities in education

SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES 8

and career profession to reduce, there is a need to change the social perception in gender roles

and create a unified society where all genders are treated equally.

Reference

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SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES 10

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