Visual Mythology And Sacred Drama In The Bronze Age Scandinavian Petroglyphs

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Abstract

Sweden’s west coast is among the most charming locations in the world. Small islands of rocks

extend into the Kattegat as to resemble a group of humpback whales. Bronze Age artists used

these bare rocks as the perfect canvas where they curved their beliefs and thoughts. Rock art is

considered among the most expressive, extensive, and accumulated body of images that date

back to prehistoric times. In Europe, Scandinavia has the largest number of rock art, most of

which depict figurative representations. The chief question that is being interrogated in this thesis

whether the Bronze Age Scandinavian petroglyphs can be interpreted as images of visual

mythology and sacred drama. It remains unclear whether the petroglyphs indeed tell stories of

Norse mythology, and to what extent if they do. The proposed study seeks to address three

important issues that are key in the collection and study of the petroglyphs found in Bohuslän.

These include situating the Bohuslän rock art collection within a chronological framework

appropriate to Scandinavian traditions and the change of these traditions over time; determining

if the petroglyphs were produced during the same period (contempraneously) and the

implications of this, if so; and presenting some tentative interpretations of the meanings and

function of the petroglyphs.

Key words: Bronze Aga, petroglyphs, Scandinevia, visual mythology, sacred drama

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Visual Mythology and Sacred Drama in the Bronze Age Scandinavian Petroglyphs

Introduction

Sweden’s west coast is among the most charming locations in the world. Small islands of

rocks extend into the Kattegat as to resemble a group of humpback whales. Exposed rock,

weathered and polished by the vagaries of time, shimmer along the hillside and coast. Bronze

Age artists used these bare rocks as the perfect canvas where they curved their beliefs and

thoughts. Their petroglyphs left mysterious and oracular messages that survive today. Compared

to Alpine petroglyphs, the rock art of northern Europe is far more diverse and varied. It is also

possible to differentiate between two distinct groups, namely hunters’ or Stone Age rock art that

is often typified by naturalistic animals, and Bronze Age rock art, which consists of stylized

designs that represent picture language (de Laet and Ahmad 945). It is important to bear in mind

that no clear dividing line exists between the two groups, and the subject, style, and topography

are characterized by many transitions.

It is uncontested that Scandinavia is endowed with the most Bronze Age petroglyphs in

Europe, with the coastal expanse of Bohuslän in the present-day Swedish province in Götaland

having the largest concentrations that date from 1700 to 500 BC. Petroglyphs can be found

virtually everywhere in this specific part of Sweden. An estimated 1,500 sites are already on

record, with more being discovered nearly every year. This area is often considered a gallery,

and some of the engravings include weapons, bulls, human figures, horses, ships, fishing nets,

the sun, birds, deer, landscapes, as well as sights of daily life. Some themes appear in nearly all

sites, particularly those of human figures and ships. The theme of ships tends to dominate the

petroglyphs, and thousands have been recorded, often depicting a crew of between six and

thirteen men.

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Background of the Study and Research Problem

Rock art is considered among the most expressive, extensive, and accumulated body of

images that date back to prehistoric times. In Europe, Scandinavia has the largest number of rock

art, most of which depict figurative representations. Rock art research started in the 18th century

and since that time, the images have yielded vivid interpretations that relate to Norse religion and

mythology, as well as Saami ethnography. Nevertheless, little is known in detail about the

meaning and purpose of Scnadinavian petroglyphs, including their potential narrative content.

Archeologists have often found it difficult to infer the content of religious beliefs. Even though

the organization and nature of rituals can be discussed in an academic discourse, it is often

difficult to identify precisely the dogmas they once expressed. On most occasions, this depends

on the availability of literary evidence. However, there is an exception, namely when visual

imagery survive and are capable of being interpreted. The chief question that is being

interrogated in this thesis whether Bronze Age Scandinavian petroglyphs can be interpreted as

images of visual mythology and sacred drama.

It remains unclear whether the petroglyphs indeed tell stories of Norse mythology, and to

what extent if they do. A fundamental problem has been the lack of a comprehensive theoretical

discourse regarding what constitutes ‘narrativity’ in rock art. The question concerning whether it

is possible to know if the Scandinavian petroglyphs depict events has also vexed archeologists.

Notwithstanding the increasing interest among archeologists in narratology during the past five

decades, this research area appears to be predominant among semoiticians, linguists, and literary

analysts. The proposed study seeks to extend narratological approaches to Scandinevian

petroglyphs as visual media. In discussing the Scandinavian petroglyphs as representations of

visual mythology and sacred drama, the author will distinguish between various levels of

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pictorial narrativity. These include stories (specific series of related events that are associated

with the Norse culture and retold for varied reasons, such as ideological purposes) and discrete

events, which might be interpreted as the transition between different states of affairs, often

involving agents or groups of agents. The other level of pictorial narrativity is that of master

narratives that are deeply embedded in the Norse culture. Solid examples of Bronze Age

Scandinavian petroglyphs will also be illustrated and analyzed.

In summary, it is important to examine the possible meaning of the Bronze Age

petroglyphs if their meaning is to be understood. In particular, the following research questions

will be addressed:

 What purpose and function did the Bronze Age Scandinavian petroglyphs serve?

 What are the common characteristics of petroglyphs?

 Do the unique contexts and content – the Scandinavian petroglyphs and the possibility

that they might be associated with mythology and sacred drama – give them a specific

identity?

 What do the images depicted in the rock arts represent?

 Do the images have a special religious and/or cultural meaning for the Norse society that

created them?

Objectives of the Proposed Research

The long-term objective of this study is to develop a deeper understanding of the

Scandinavian petroglyphs from the Bronze Age through the prism of Norse mythology. Norse

mythology refers to the mythological practices of the North Germanic people that stemmed from

Norse paganism and continued into the modern Scandinavian folklore. It consists of stories of

gods, heroes, and beings derived from various sources that date back prior to the period of Norse

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paganism, including archeological representations (such as the petroglyphs), medieval

manuscripts, as well as folk tradition (Dougherty 296). Many gods referred to in source texts,

including the hammer-wielding thunder god Thor; the raven-flanked, one-eyed Odin who seeks

knowledge and was responsible for bestowing the runic alphabet among humanity; and the

goddess Freyja who dons a feathered cloak and rides to battles to select among the slain

warriors. Others are Njörðr, the powerful god who can calm fire and the sea; Hveðrungr, or Loki

Loptr, who behaves in mischievous ways towards the gods; and many other deities. The bulk of

the surviving mythology focuses on the interaction between the gods and other being, including

humanity.

The objective of the proposed study is to offer a comprehensive analysis of the Bronze

Age petroglyphs within the context of Norse mythology and ancient religious practices. The

specific sub-objectives of the study are as follows:

 To offer a comprehensive review of the Bronze Age Scandinavian rock art and their

characteristics;

 To review how scholars have interpreted the meaning of the petroglyphs in previous

studies;

 To examine how the visual language of the petroglyphs communicate the meanings that

the spiritual world offered for the needs of the ancient Norse society; and

 To establish a connection between Bronze Age Scandinavian rock art and Norse

mythology

Without a doubt, the results of the current study will be important for archeology scholars with

interest in Bronze Age Scandinavian petroglyphs, as well as for scholars with interest in ancient

rock art elsewhere in the world and their meanings.

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Establishing the Context of the Topic

There is a lack of consistent knowledge regarding the practice of religion and spirituality

in Bronze Age Scandinavia. It is important to establish a context if the topic is to flourish. The

said context is influenced largely by the existing state of knowledge. The purpose of a literature

review is to scrutinize the existing literature with the goal of justifying how the research will be

consistent with the extant body of knowledge. In other words, the literature review must supply

the general understanding that then gives meaning to the discussion of the study’s findings and

recommendations. In this manner, the researcher will be able to demonstrate effectively the

connection between the study and previous efforts, as well as how his or her research extends the

existing understanding of the Bronze Age petroglyphs from the unique line of scholarly inquiry

presented herein.

Rock Art as Visual Mythology

The Bronze Age rock art that forms the petroglyphs convey images of power and

conflict. It is possible to perceive the figures as representing Odin, who was the Norse god of

war. In this regard, the meaning of the rock art appears to be representative of visual mythology,

although scholars are yet to explore it from this perspective. Dragons and tales of war are an

important part of the Norse mythology. Since ancient times, dragons were creatures of import

and a central part of life among the Nordic people and, later on, included and portrayed in

Scandinavian folklore. The bow of Viking Age longships were decorated with dragon heads, and

various skaldic poems, sagas, legends, and chronicles of the Middle Ages in Denmark and

Iceland mention and describe dragons as central aspects of Nordic life. Some of the salient

literary works have detailed the central role of Dragons in Norse Mythology. These include the

Völsung cycle (famous Norse legends recorded as rock carvings in England, Sweden, and

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Norway), Völuspá (a series of far-famed poems composed in Old Norse), and Gesta Danorum (a

patriotic chronicle of the Danish history composed by twelfth century writer Saxo Grammaticus).

Dragons, Norse Gods, Tales of War, and their Connections to the Petroglyphs

Some of the famous Norse dragons that emerge from the aforementioned literary works,

and that also feature prominently in the Bronze Age petroglyphs include Fáfnir, Níðhǫggr, and

Jǫrmungandr (Ganeri 32; Wolf and Pulsiano 152). According to Norse mythology, Fáfnir was

dwarf king Hreidmar’s son and brother to Lofnheiðr, Ótr, Regin, and Lyngheiðr who was turned

into a dragon by the curse of Andvari's gold and ring and later slain by Sigurd. Norse mythology

has it that Fáfnir was cursed by Andvari’s magical ring, thereby turning him into a dragon.

Níðhǫggr, which translates to ‘malice striker,’ can be found in Old Norse literature as a dreadful

dragon that derives its name from its appearance and petrifying behavior towards deceitful

inhabitants of Hel, the name given to the land of the ignoble and disgraceful dead in Norse

mythology (Bright 71). In fact, Níðhǫggr derives from the Old Norse word ‘níð,’ which meant

‘the loss of honor.’ The dragon Jǫrmungandr, or the “great beast” (the progeny of trickster god

Loki and the female giant Angroba), is a sea dragon that girds Midgard, or the land of the living

in Norse cosmology.

There is an easily understandable relationship between watery or earthly putrefaction and

dragons as depicted in the Bronze Age petroglyphs when viewed using the prism of Norse

mythology. The great dragon Jǫrmungandr, which encircles Midgard (Earth) while biting on its

tail, protects the land of the living is related to Níðhǫggr, which is depicted in some of the

petroglyphs as encircling the roots of a tree (often interpreted as environing the world).

According to Norse folklore, Thor confronts Jǫrmungandr, who is also Loki’s grotesque

offspring, during his fishing expedition with Hymir at the furthermost point of the sea and plays

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a pivotal role in Ragnarok, or the puzzling apocalypse of the gods. The petroglyphs from

Sotetorp in the neighborhood of Tanumshede in Bohuslen depict a sailing vessel manned by

thirteen men and two mythic figures donning helmets and wielding gigantic axes, both with large

phalluses. One of the occupants of the ship in the fishing expedition is depicted as somersaulting

along the ship’s length, with the ship having a dragonhead in the bow.

It is from the dragons described in the Norse mythology that a connection between the

petroglyphs and gods in Norse mythology can be made. The rock carvings of dragons portray

battles, or endings. However, some of the said endings do not have a gory tone, even though

some associated folklores such as Ragnarok are without doubt bloody and melancholic tales. The

rock carvings also give a hint of the birth of something else in the aftermath of the last battle of

the Norse gods. Even though the gods, in their magnificence and greatness, must ultimately

perish, something else comes into being. This way, the petroglyphs depict Norse dragons as

taking on an element of change, and of new beginnings. Concerning the traditional use of

dragons in the Norse civilization, it is imperative to mention that the wealthiest and highly

longboats regarded had dragonheads adornments on their stern and bow. These served as signs of

bravery, strength, and power. Moreover, Norsemen frequently waved dragon flags in the

battlefield as a way of scaring and coercing their enemies. It is not surprising that Bronze Age

Norse artists used rocks as the perfect canvas to draw dragons, which occupy a special place in

Norse mythology.

Although other dragons are also a character feature of Norse mythology, none is as

common and significant as the ones depicted in the Bronze Age petroglyphs of Scandinavia. It is

clear from the rock art that the Norse culture did not view dragons in an entirely positive way.

While dragons did embody primordial chaos and destruction in the cultures of early civilizations,

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the Norse saw these creatures as outgrowths of the evilness and impiety that characterizes the

human heart, or a force of transformation and a sign of new beginnings. Overall, there is a lack

of coherent knowledge about Norse religion during the Bronze Age and the manner in which

Norsemen practiced their spirituality. Bronze Age rock art appears to support certain practices

contained in Norse folklore, such as sun worshipping. The petroglyphs comprise portrayals of

famous gods from Norse mythology. A familiar figure in the petroglyphs of the Bronze Age in

Scandinavia is that of a male brandishing what resembles a hammer or axe, which could be

interpreted as representing Thor.

The petroglyphs also portray images of other male figures wielding spears. Whether these

represent Týr or Odin is yet to be established. It is only natural to conclude that the scenes

portrayed in the Bronze Age Scandinavian petroglyphs reveal the existence of a sacred drama. In

fact, one of the figures appears to be an image of Tyr since one of the Bronze Age rock art

depicts a male figure without a hand. Tyr, or “The Maimed god,” was a Norse god of justice and

law and is represented in Norse mythology as being one-handed. Considering the complexity and

multifaceted nature of the Bronze Age petroglyphs, the argument concerning a “sacred drama”

could be considered merely as a novel theory worth exploring further. However, the rock

carvings do support the existence of abstract thespian figures that constituted part of the

Scandinavian rituals and beliefs during the period.

Sacred Drama and the Role of Norse Gods

The Bronze Age petroglyphs could be interpreted as representing the images of the

Viking Age. The Viking Age refers to the period between the eighth and mid-eleventh century in

European history, particularly Scandinavian and Northern European history, after the Iron Age.

Even though the Bronze Age generally gave way to the Iron Age, in certain areas, such as

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Scandinavia and Northern Europe, the Iron Age and the Viking Age are considered to have

overlapped each other (Lafayllve 15). It appears that the people of Scandinavia were already a

Viking society long before the Viking Age. The petroglyphs depict images of warriors wielding

various forms of weaponry, including swords, axes, spearheads, as well as varied forms of

defensive armor. The sword was the warrior’s primary weapon and the weapon of choice in

combat. As most petroglyphs indicate, earlier weapons that included spears, axes, and arrows

were adapted from hunting gear (Price 202). While these were mainly slashing swords that were

intended for hand-to-hand combat, they were nonetheless very lethal weapons. Obviously, these

weapons also served other important functions, including acting as status symbols.

The connection between the Bronze Age rock art and Viking society is a plausible one.

Viking religious beliefs were intricately linked to Norse mythology. In fact, Vikings emphasized

strongly on battle and honor, in addition to focusing on the spiritual concept of Valhalla, which

described the mythical home that slain warriors shared with the gods. It is, therefore, natural to

assume that the actions that the figures in some of the images in the petroglyphs perform were

possibly associated with a myth. The notion that the scenes in the said rock arts are a reflection

of the existence of some kind of ‘sacred drama’ has been explored, albeit superficially, by

renowned Swedish archeologists Oscar Almgren (Gunnell 45). The ship ceremonies depicted in

the petroglyphs might be interpreted within the context of Indo-European cultures. These

cultures include Babylon, Rome, Egypt, and Greece, all of which had a fertility ritual associated

with the passing of the fertility god on a longship, as well as a seasonal drama that involved the

theme of the ‘sacred marriage’ (or hieros gamos) along with aspects of death and resurrection.

The human figures, which in some depictions comprise of horn players, costumed

figures, as well as dancers and adorants around the sun symbol and the longships, certainly

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belonged to some kind of ritual drama, with the ships acting as a stage for dramatic games. For

instance, some petroglyphs from Tanum in the coastal expanse of Bohuslän in the present-day

Swedish province in Götaland involve certain aspects of hieros gamos and brutal death (see

Figure 1).

Figure 1: Possible depictions of a sacred drama: Petrroglyphs from Tanum, Bohuslän.

The combatants in the said depictions may be viewed as fertility god and his adversaries, with

the scene being among the many elements in the drama performed on the longship (Gunnell 45).

Overall, the rock carvings in Tanum support the thesis of the existence of representations of

sacred drama that constituted part of Nordic cult practices during the Bronze Age, and which

extended to the Viking Age.

Background to the Proposed Study Area

This section offers an outline of the historical and environmental background of the

proposed study area. The proposed study area is Tanum, near Tanumshede in Bohuslän, Sweden.

This site has a high concentration of petroglyphs from the Nordic Bronze Age that are known as

the Tanum petroglyphs. These petroglyphs contain thousands of rock art on more than 600

panels (Price 196). The ancient site spans an estimated 126 acres (51 hectares or 0.5 square

kilometers) and is endowed with a great variety of rock carvings that include images of

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longboats, warriors, dragons, chariots (carts), weapon-like axes and spears, bows, humans, and

animals. The petroglyphs at the site are fascinating and serve as a gallery that comprises different

motifs in a variety of combinations and compositions. The excavation of the site was conducted

in various times and occasions. The first survey of the petroglyphs was conducted for the first

time in 1890 while the Swedish National Heritage Board (Riksantikvarieämbetet) did a detailed

survey in 1990.

The Climate

Tanum is usually characterized by temperatures that go below -30C during winter.

Reduced rainfall during winter periods is often attended by cooler temperatures. However,

during summer, the daily average temperatures regularly go beyond 20

C, with considerable

levels of relative humidity. These conditions impinge on the condition and survival of the

petroglyphs, since some have been painted to make them more visible. Extreme temperatures

often hasten the weathering and exfoliation of rock surfaces, which affects preservation potential

and the quality of the rock art. It is also worth noting that water movement over the rock surfaces

during periods of high precipitation can remove the pigment, in addition to contributing to the

accumulation of mineral over the petroglyphs.

Hydrology

The proposed area of study has two main rivers, namely the Göta Älv and the

Hogdalsbäcken rivers. Close to these rivers are trees that point to high ground water and wet

area. The flow of streams and rivers during winter is usually subsurface because of the highly

seasonal nature of rainfall. The availability of water in this region possibly had a major influence

on the settlement patterns during the Nordic Bronze Age.

Ethnography

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The region of Bohuslän, which is characterized by a maritime history and a maritime

location, has traditionally been associated with the sea. Farming and fishing have an established

tradition in this region. For the coastal population, both sources of sustenance were a common

practice during historical times. Farmer-fishers have been widespread terms in describing the

livelihood of the Bohuslän populace (Ling 14). It is worth noting that the sailors and fisher folk

of Bohuslän were reputed as skillful and daring, and the region has been among Scandinavia’s

leading boat-building centers.

Archeological Context

The region of Bohuslän has witnessed an expansive span of human occupation and

history, covering more than 10,000 years. Archeological inquiries have generated a

chronological outline of the historical sequences, usually referred to a “cultures.” All of these

distinct cultures are defined by the distinction in artifact types, technologies, subsistence

patterns, as well as the inferred social organizations. The recent years have witnessed a series of

excavations close to the rock carving panels in Bohuslän in connection with the Tanum Project

(Ling 312). The said excavations have revealed lots of new information and hitherto not known

archeological finds. In this manner, such findings have illuminated the context of the petroglyphs

and the engraved rock panels. Even before the Tanum Project, researchers had carried out

archeological excavations at two magnificent petroglyph sites in Bohuslän, that is, at Fossum in

Tanum and at Torp in Skredsviks. In general, when studying and dating the petroglyphs in

Bohuslän, the first suggestion is usually the Bronze Age.

Summary

The environment plays an important role in the study of rock art. In the proposed study

site, the climatic conditions impinge on the preservation rates, as temperature fluctuations affect

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the rates of pigment loss and exfoliation. Additionally, temperatures increases during summer

and low temperatures during winter negatively affect preservation potential. Because some of the

petroglyphs have been painted, the movement of water over the rock surface during summer can

also contribute to the degradation of pigment. Therefore, the environment impinges significantly

on the scenery of cultural activities carried out by the inhabitants of the study area in the past

and, therefore, plays an important role in the contemprary interpretations and perceptions of the

petroglyphs.

The Proposed Methodology

The proposed methods will be both quantitative and descriptive in nature and will take

the form of field surveys. Site survey will be conducted, and because of the nature of the

landscape together with the objectives of the proposed research, the survey will target multiple

sites within the study area to make certain that a large number of patroglyphs are located.

Handheld global positioning system (GPS) will be used in recording the location of the various

sites and photographs will be taken and sketches of the sites drawn. Some of the variables that

will be recorded at the study area include the techniques employed (painting or engravings), the

presence and types of motifs (spearheads, shields, animal features, human figures, shields, axes),

as well as the number of present motifs. To address matters relating to territoriality and the

interaction between the people and the practice of their religion and spirituality, the researcher

will carry out a detailed review of extant literature on Scandinavian petroglyphs. This

information will permit for a comparison of the styles and patterns of rock art in surrounding

provinces and municipalities.

The outcome of this comparison will be combined with spatial data to gain a deeper

understanding of how the petroglyphs reflect the mythology and spiritual beliefs within the

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landscape during the Nordic Bronze Age. Digital image enhancement will also be employed.

This technique, which uses digital image enhancement tools such as the Adobe Photoshop and

similar software suites, is now standard in rock art studies. Using such tools, archeologists can

reproduce motifs that have a higher degree of accuracy, which is often difficult to attain when

using freehand sketching (Agius et al. 101). These programs improve visibility of deteriorated

pigments by selectively enhancing colors. Among the advantages of the said technique is the

ability to separate pigment colors from the background. In this manner, it is able to permit the

recovery and identification of washed out images that are impossible to distinguish using the

naked eye. The proposed study will employ this method in clarifying any deteriorated motifs and

ensure the maximization of positive identification.

Conclusion

Archeologists have left the study of Bronze Age Scandinavian petroglyphs to amateurs

who are often unable to relate the rock art to the objective and clear-cut study of dated

excavations. In fact, most scientists have paid no attention to the rock pictures. The proposed

study intends to carry out a deep archeological inquiry into the Bronze Age petroglyphs at

Bohuslän and demonstrate that such an inquiry is not only worthwhile, but also a fruitful

undertaking, as well. The study will address three important issues that are key in the collection

and study of the petroglyphs found in Bohuslän. These include situating the Bohuslän rock art

collection within a chronological framework appropriate to Scandinavian traditions and the

change of these traditions over time; determining if the petroglyphs were produced during the

same period (contempraneously) and the implications of this, if so; and presenting some tentative

interpretations of the meanings and function of the petroglyphs.

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Dougherty, Martin J. Norse Myths: Viking Legends of Heroes and Gods. New York: Metro

Books, 2016. Print.

Ganeri, Anita. Norse Myths and Legends. Chicago: Raintree, 2013. Print.

Gunnell, Terry. The Origins of Drama in Scandinavia. Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 2008. Print.

Lafayllve, Patricia M. A Practical Heathen's Guide to Asatru. Woodbury: Llewellyn

Publications, 2013. Print.

Ling, Johan. Elevated Rock Art: Towards a Maritime Understanding of Bronze Age Rock Art in

Northern Bohusln, Sweden. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2014. Print.

Price, Douglas T. Ancient Scandinavia: An Archaeological History from the First Humans to the

Vikings. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Print.

Price, Theron D. Ancient Scandinavia: An Archaeological History from the First Humans to the

Vikings. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. Print.

Wolf, Kirsten and Phillip Pulsiano. Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia. New York:

Routledge, 2016. Print.

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